Friends’ Accuracy and Bias in Rating Group Identification

Group identification predicts adherence to a group’s norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors. The ability to accurately perceive another’s degree of group identification may be important for predicting the other’s beliefs and actions. In two studies, we examine friends’ accuracy and bias in rating identification with social categories. Friends were asked to rate one another’s and their own identification with state (Studies 1 and 2), national, and global citizen (Study 2) social identities. Across both studies, friends were shown to be both accurate and biased in rating one another’s identification. Thus, although friends may project identification onto a friend (i.e., bias), friends are also able to accurately predict one another’s degree of connection to social groups. Furthermore, friends’ greater frequency of contact was found to increase accuracy in prediction. Together, the results provide initial evidence for future research examining person perception and intergroup interactions.     

Accuracy and performance of the state-based Φ and liveliness measures of information integration

A number of people have suggested that there is a link between information integration and consciousness, and a number of algorithms for calculating information integration have been put forward. The most recent of these is Balduzzi and Tononi’s state-based Φ algorithm, which has factorial dependencies that severely limit the number of neurons that can be analyzed. To address this issue an alternative state-based measure known as liveliness has been developed, which uses the causal relationships between neurons to identify the areas of maximum information integration. This paper outlines the state-based Φ and liveliness algorithms and sets out a number of test networks that were used to compare their accuracy and performance. The results show that liveliness is a reasonable approximation to state-based Φ for some network topologies, and it has a much more scalable performance than state-based Φ.     

Transactional Associations Between Youths’ Responses to Peer Stress and Depression: The Moderating Roles of Sex and Stress Exposure

This study examined transactional associations between responses to peer stress and depression in youth. Specifically, it tested the hypotheses that (a) depression would predict fewer effortful responses and more involuntary, dysregulated responses to peer stress over time; and (b) fewer adaptive and more maladaptive responses would predict subsequent depression. Youth (M age = 12.41; SD = 1.19; 86 girls, 81 boys) and their maternal caregivers completed semi-structured interviews and questionnaires at three annual waves. Multi-group comparison path analyses were conducted to examine sex and stress-level differences in the proposed reciprocal-influence model. In girls and in youth exposed to high levels of peer stress, maladaptive stress responses predicted more depressive symptoms and adaptive stress responses predicted fewer depressive symptoms at each wave. These findings suggest the utility of preventive interventions for depression designed to enhance the quality of girls’ stress responses. In boys, depression predicted less adaptive and more maladaptive stress responses, but only at the second wave. These findings suggest that interventions designed to reduce boys’ depressive symptoms may help them develop more adaptive stress responses.     

Stressed and Happy? Investigating the Relationship Between Happiness and Perceived Stress

Developing interventions to increase happiness is a major focus of the emerging field of positive psychology. Common beliefs about the need to reduce stress to obtain happiness suggest that stress management activities should be included in these interventions. However, the research on the relationship between positive and negative affect is equivocal. Theoretically, they are conceptualized as independent dimensions, but research has often found an inverse relationship between happiness and stress. In addition, the research generally attempts to assess stress objectively rather than in terms of the cognitive appraisal process. The current study examines the relationship between perceived stress and happiness among 100 college students to determine if the same inverse relationship exists. Linear correlations between happiness and perceived stress were significant indicating that there was an inverse relationship between these variables. The discussion focuses on several factors that might help to explain the observed relationship.     

Expecting Stress: Americans and the “Midlife Crisis”

Despite frequent debunking of the inevitability of the midlife crisis in the research literature (e.g., D. A. Chiriboga, 1997; R. McCrae & P. Costa, 1990), the term remains a media staple, implying that midlife is a time of stress and difficulties brought about by turning 40. A recent review of midlife crisis research (O. G. Brim, 1992) concluded that midlife is not universally stressful and estimated that roughly only 10% of American men might undergo a midlife crisis. This paper examines the disjunction between popular and researcher views of midlife and its crisis. Using semistructured telephone survey techniques, this study of 724 participants explores the definitions that Americans hold of the midlife crisis and analyzes self-reports of midlife crises. Most Americans (over 90%) could provide a definition of the midlife crisis, and these definitions roughly coincide with the definitions used in psychological and psychoanalytic theories of the midlife crisis. Twenty-six percent of Americans reported that they had a midlife crisis. Qualitative analyses showed that Americans use a much wider definition of what constitutes a midlife crisis than that used by researchers. Despite the identification of this term with male personality development, women were as likely as men to report having had a midlife crisis. In addition, crises occurring well before age 40 and well after age 50 were frequently nominated as midlife crises. Most participants did not attribute their self-reported midlife crises to aging, but rather to major life events that posed a severe threat and challenge during a very broadly-defined period of midlife.     

Stress and emotional valence effects on children's versus adolescents’ true and false memory

Despite considerable interest in understanding how stress influences memory accuracy and errors, particularly in children, methodological limitations have made it difficult to examine the effects of stress independent of the effects of the emotional valence of to-be-remembered information in developmental populations. In this study, we manipulated stress levels in 7–8- and 12–14-year-olds and then exposed them to negative, neutral, and positive word lists. Shortly afterward, we tested their recognition memory for the words and false memory for non-presented but related words. Adolescents in the high-stress condition were more accurate than those in the low-stress condition, while children's accuracy did not differ across stress conditions. Also, among adolescents, accuracy and errors were higher for the negative than positive words, while in children, word valence was unrelated to accuracy. Finally, increases in children's and adolescents’ cortisol responses, especially in the high-stress condition, were related to greater accuracy but not false memories and only for positive emotional words. Findings suggest that stress at encoding, as well as the emotional content of to-be-remembered information, may influence memory in different ways across development, highlighting the need for greater complexity in existing models of true and false memory formation.     

Differences in Inter‐Rater Reliability and Accuracy for a Treatment Adherence Scale

Inter‐rater reliability and accuracy are measures of rater performance. Inter‐rater reliability is frequently used as a substitute for accuracy despite conceptual differences and literature suggesting important differences between them. The aims of this study were to compare inter‐rater reliability and accuracy among a group of raters, using a treatment adherence scale, and to assess for factors affecting the reliability of these ratings. Paired undergraduate raters assessed therapist behavior by viewing videotapes of 4 therapists' cognitive behavioral therapy sessions. Ratings were compared with expert‐generated criterion ratings and between raters using intraclass correlation (2,1). Inter‐rater reliability was marginally higher than accuracy (p = 0.09). The specific therapist significantly affected inter‐rater reliability and accuracy. The frequency and intensity of the therapists' ratable behaviors of criterion ratings correlated only with rater accuracy. Consensus ratings were more accurate than individual ratings, but composite ratings were not more accurate than consensus ratings. In conclusion, accuracy cannot be assumed to exceed inter‐rater reliability or vice versa, and both are influenced by multiple factors. In this study, the subject of the ratings (i.e. the therapist and the intensity and frequency of rated behaviors) was shown to influence inter‐rater reliability and accuracy. The additional resources needed for a composite rating, a rating based on the average score of paired raters, may be justified by improved accuracy over individual ratings. The additional time required to arrive at a consensus rating, a rating generated following discussion between 2 raters, may not be warranted. Further research is needed to determine whether these findings hold true with other raters and treatment adherence scales.     

Genetic Counseling—Stress, Coping, and the Empowerment Perspective

Historically one of the basic foundations of the genetic counseling process has been nondirectiveness; however, its definition and utility continues to be in question. There remains a need to develop genetic counseling interventions in order to qualify, quantify, measure, and enhance the genetic counseling process as well as to delineate the complex interactions of education and counseling that occur. We propose a framework for genetic counseling interventions utilizing an empowerment perspective and Lazarus and Folkman's adaptation of the theory of stress and coping. This model frames the genetic counseling process as one that promotes the autonomy of the individual by providing the individual with the tools required to make their own decisions and enhances coping and adjustment to the outcome of those decisions through control and mastery.     

“Test-Tube Baby” procedures: Stress and judgements under uncertainty

Patients participating in an in vim fertilisation with embryo transfer (IVF and ET) programme face uncertainty at each stage of the procedure. Research on heuristics and on stress lead to predictions about behaviour in situations of uncertainty. It was predicted that IVF and ET participants would overestimate the likelihood of success, due to publicity the process has received, and would underestimate the likelihood of an earlier, less publicised. stage in the procedure. Both predictions were confirmed in a total of 70 participants (26 women at out-patient clines, 23 of their partners and 21 surgical in-patients). All the men and all but one woman overestimated the likelihood of becoming pregnant and having a baby. and most of the surgical patients underestimated the likelihood of egg recovery. Estimates were not related to patients' confidence about their information, confirming previous evidence about confidence in inaccurate judgements based on heuristics. Data on patients' distress as indicated by mood rating show high anxiety at points of uncertainty and Pailure, as found in other studies of stress. While the couples shared their inaccurate judgements. they did not necessarily share their distress. The results are discussed in terms of patients' decision making. coping strategies and the implications for doctor-patient communication.     

Stress,appraisal and work routine in wartime: do men and women differ?

Past research has devoted little attention to the role of work routine (i.e., adherence to a consistent pattern of attending work in a regular, predictable manner) in civilians' lives during wartime. The current study offers competing theoretical arguments on how work routine and gender combine to moderate the association between primary appraisal and war-related stress among civilians during the second Lebanon war (July–August 2006). Data were collected using telephone interviews (based on a structured questionnaire) with 2072 civilians. The sample was obtained using a within-strata random-sampling method. Our results suggest that negative affect (a symptom of stress) is associated with more negative primary appraisal of the war situation (i.e., higher threat appraisal). The association between negative affect and appraisal was attenuated among individuals engaging in regular work routine and among men. Moreover, the positive relationship between work routine and appraisal was stronger among women than among men. This study provides insight into the role of the workplace in the lives of civilians exposed to continuing in unsafe situations. In light of the past research suggesting that women are more vulnerable to war-related stress than men, this study proposes that regular work routine may be particularly beneficial for women.     

Childhood Adversity and Children’s Academic Functioning: Roles of Parenting Stress and Neighborhood Support

Existing research has shown that adverse childhood experiences from family instability and lack of safety increase children’s risk for poor academic functioning. A recent conceptual framework, however, has emphasized the need to investigate how parenting might mediate while community context might moderate the association between childhood adversity and children’s cognitive development. In the current study, we tested the roles of parenting stress and neighborhood support in the association between cumulative childhood adversity and children’s current academic functioning. We conducted a secondary data analysis on the subsample of school-aged children (i.e., 6–17 years old; N?=?65,680) from the 2011–2012 United States National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH). The parent provided telephone survey data on six types of adversity (e.g., parent’s divorce) that the target child experienced, parenting stress, neighborhood support, as well as the child’s academic functioning. Controlling for the child’s age, gender, ethnicity, and the parent’s education level, structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed a significant moderated mediating effect: parenting stress partially mediated the association between history of childhood adversity and children’s current academic functioning (β?=??1.760, p?<?0.001), while neighborhood support moderated the association between parenting stress (β?=?0.492, p?<?0.001) and academic functioning.     

Patterns of Stress and Support Among Adventist Clergy: Do Pastors and their Spouses Differ?

Studies of clergy stress have addressed the demands made by the ministry environment on the minister’s personal and family life. Most of the research has been conducted using the individual responses of male pastors. Comparatively little empirical research has been done with pastors’ wives, and still less where both the husbands’ and the wives’ responses are matched and compared. The present study utilizes Hill’s (Families under stress, Harper, New York, 1949) ABC-X model of family stress to examine differences between spouses in how demand, support, and perception relate to personal and ministry outcomes. Survey results from a sample of 147 male Seventh-Day Adventist clergy and their wives indicated that while there were some consistent differences in levels of demand and support, the most salient variable was their satisfaction with available social support, and this was true of both pastors and wives.     

Borderline Personality Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Time for Integration?

The increasing prevalence of borderline personality disorder (BPD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnoses among women illustrates problems and limitations of the medical model system (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). In particular, diagnoses of BPD continue the trend of overpathologizing women's issues and reinforcing a patriarchal system of diagnosis and treatment. A PTSD diagnosis, with similar criteria, is preferred for traumatized women because it portrays them in a more positive context. This article explores the overlapping relationship between BPD and PTSD and critiques how both are viewed within the mental health community. Previous research on BPD and PTSD is explored, as well as concerns and limitations regarding both diagnostic categories.     

Polite Girls and Creative Boys? Students' Gender Moderates Accuracy of Teachers' Ratings of Creativity

The aim of this study was to examine whether, and to what extent, teachers are able to recognize the creativity of their students. The study measured the creative abilities, creative attitude, creative activity, as well as intrinsic motivation, intelligence, and school functioning of 589 Polish high school students, while their teachers (N = 178) rated students' creativity. The structural equation model (SEM) demonstrated that the accuracy of teachers' ratings of students' creativity is generally low—the latent factor of students' creativity reliably, however weakly, predicted teachers' ratings. The accuracy of teachers' ratings was moderated by gender: Only in the case of male students did the latent creativity factor reliably predict teachers' ratings. Students' school functioning emerged as a key factor positively associated with the perception of students as creative.     

Applications of the Speed–Accuracy Trade-off and Impulse-Variability Theory for Teaching Ballistic Motor Skills

Bridging the gap between innovative research and teaching is a fundamental necessity for physical education practitioners to promote motor skill development and competency. This requires practitioners to understand, synthesize, and appropriately apply relevant research from different academic domains in their instructional environments. Ballistic motor skills such as kicking, throwing, and striking are fundamentally integrated into many games and sports and provide a foundation for physical activity and fitness for children and adults. Unfortunately, many individuals do not attain a high level of competence in these types of skills by adolescence. The purpose of this review is to integrate theory, pedagogical best practices, and current evidence on studies relating to Fitts’ Law’s application of the speed–accuracy trade-off and impulse-variability theory to provide an evidence-based framework for promoting effective instructional environments for learning ballistic motor skills.     

Accuracy of drawing in a dual-task and resistance-to-distraction study: motor or attention deficit?

To determine whether manual incoordination is caused by attention deficit or not, we used an accuracy drawing task as a primary task in dual-task and resistance-to-distraction studies, and examined if thus measured attention could differentiate inattention (IA) and combined (CO) subtypes of ADHD. The secondary tasks and distractions failed to lower the primary task performance in IA, CO and control groups. We also compared the impairment scores of the accuracy drawing tasks from the Movement Assessment Battery for Children [Henderson, S. E., & Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement assessment battery for children. London: Psychological Corporation.] between the groups with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or developmental coordination disorder-inaccurate drawing type (DCD-ID). There were no group differences in the impairment score between the control and the ADHD groups, and between ADHD and ADHD plus DCD-ID groups. We concluded that inaccurate drawing is not caused by attention deficit, but that it is a manifestation of a motor deficit as a separate entity from attention deficit.