Choosing job-related personality traits: Developing valid personality-oriented job analysis

Although personality assessment has proven utility in pre-employment testing, little is known about how one should choose the personality traits that are most job-related. We developed a Personality-oriented Job Analysis (POJA) process for choosing job-related personality traits. We evaluated this process using 15 expert raters and approximately 330 medical students who each completed six different “jobs” in which their performance was evaluated. There was consistency across experts in POJA ratings of the job-relevance of personality traits. Also, POJA ratings of the personality traits correlated with the actual criterion-validity of the traits. Traits that received the highest POJA ratings tended to predict job performance. To our knowledge, this is the first published work to present evidence of the criterion-validity of POJA.     

The Causal Structure of Utility Conditionals

The psychology of reasoning is increasingly considering agents' values and preferences, achieving greater integration with judgment and decision making, social cognition, and moral reasoning. Some of this research investigates utility conditionals, ‘‘if p then q’’ statements where the realization of p or q or both is valued by some agents. Various approaches to utility conditionals share the assumption that reasoners make inferences from utility conditionals based on the comparison between the utility of p and the expected utility of q. This article introduces a new parameter in this analysis, the underlying causal structure of the conditional. Four experiments showed that causal structure moderated utility‐informed conditional reasoning. These inferences were strongly invited when the underlying structure of the conditional was causal, and significantly less so when the underlying structure of the conditional was diagnostic. This asymmetry was only observed for conditionals in which the utility of q was clear, and disappeared when the utility of q was unclear. Thus, an adequate account of utility‐informed inferences conditional reasoning requires three components: utility, probability, and causal structure.     

Measuring Procedural Knowledge More Simply with a Single-Response Situational Judgment Test

Purpose  This paper describes the development of a situational judgment test (SJT) based on single-response options developed directly from critical incidents and reports a study that tested the SJT’s concurrent validity against ratings of job performance. Design/Methodology/Approach  Situational judgment test items were developed from critical incidents provided by administrators of volunteer agencies. Volunteers who worked at another agency completed the SJT and a self-report personality test. Supervisors rated their job performance on three dimensions. Findings  Situational judgment test scores representing procedural knowledge about work effort were significantly correlated with ratings of work effort performance (r = .28). Conscientiousness was correlated with work effort knowledge (r = .26), but not with work effort performance (r = −.02). Implications  These results provide some preliminary evidence that a single-response SJT format based upon critical incidents can produce valid measures of procedural knowledge and might be a useful alternative to the traditional multiple-response format. Originality/Value  This paper presents a novel way to construct SJTs using single-response options that are less laborious to develop than the multiple-response options in traditional SJT formats. Results of the validity study suggest that this new single-response format can predict job performance and encourage further research on the viability of this approach.     

Utility maximization and melioration: Internalities in individual choice

How do people go about choosing between alternatives in relatively simple settings? This study explores some of the variables that past work suggests may be relevant. Volunteer subjects worked for money in six procedures in which the probability of a payment from either of two alternatives was 1.0, but the rate of pay (i.e. the speed with which a payment was delivered or the size of the payment) interacted with the subjects recent allocation of choices, which we define as the ‘internalities’. Because of the internalities, choosing the currently more profitable alternative did not maximize total earnings. Subjects were more likely to fail to maximize when the interaction between present pay and past choices was spread over longer sequences of choices, or when the reward variable was the speed, rather than the value, of each payment. Subjects often disregarded the internalities and were instead guided by the current yields of the two alternatives, which is a frequently observed tendency, called ‘melioration’, in experiments on choices by animals. The tendency toward melioration was only partially counteracted by explicit instructions on how to maximize earnings. We discuss a theoretical framework for melioration that postulates both motivational and cognitive sources.     

On-the-job embeddedness as a mediator between conscientiousness and school teachers' contextual performance

The recently introduced concept of job embeddedness has been shown to predict various organizational outcomes. In prediction models, its usual role is that of an antecedent explaining variance beyond commonly used attitudinal measures. Using social information processing theory as a framework, the present study examines on-the-job embeddedness (ONJE) as a potential mediator in predicting performance within an educational framework. Analysis of a multisource evaluation scheme applied to 115 school teachers supported the expectation that conscientiousness and ONJE are predictors of task and contextual performance. Moreover, ONJE was found to serve as a mediator by providing a partial explanation for the link between conscientiousness and contextual performance. Future research with other attitudinal and personality measures is suggested to broaden the role that ONJE plays in predicting performance.     

Does longer job tenure help or hinder job performance?

There are two competing theoretical perspectives on how job tenure might affect job performance. Human capital theory suggests that as knowledge and skill increase with greater tenure, job performance will improve as well. In contrast, the literature on job design suggests that as job tenure increases, employees are likely to become more bored and less motivated at work. Consequently, the gains from human capital acquisition might be offset by losses of motivation. To examine these competing perspectives, we conducted meta-analyses on the relationships of job tenure with four types of job performance: core task performance, citizenship behavior, creativity and innovative behavior, and counterproductive work behavior. The results support the second perspective, as both the linear and curvilinear relationships of job tenure with the four types of job performance are weak. Further, the results do not change in strength across type of research design, job industry, age, or gender.     

A Review of North American Selection Procedures: Canada and the United States of America

This article reviews North American selection procedures used to make employment decisions (hiring, promotion, training, layoff and demotion) within public and private organizations in Canada and the United States of America. We present the conclusions of several surveys of selection practices including those conducted by the International Personnel Management Association and the American Management Association. We summarize the literature on assessment centers, biodata, computerized assessment, education and experience criteria, individual assessment, education and experience criteria, individual assessment, integrity testing, interviews, job knowledge tests, physical and psychomotor tests and written tests. We also describe selection procedures being used for a variety of occupations from Air Traffic Controller to Telephone Operator. We conclude by describing future trends in personnel assessment in North America and predict greater collaborative research efforts between our two countries.     

Gender-Based Preferential Selection: Perceptions of Injustice and Empathy of Deprivation

Study 1 examined fairness perceptions about gender-based selection. Using a 2 × 3 × 4 (sample × justification × merit discrepancy) between-subjects design, and a scenario approach involving a hypothetical selection case, results showed that (1) males and females perceived gender-based selection as unfair and that the level of perceived unfairness was directly related to the size of discrepancy in merits between the female appointee and the rejected male candidate, (2) the provision of either an ethical or a legislative justification exacerbated perceptions of injustice. To reframe the findings in the context of relative deprivation theory, study 2 repeated study 1 with a professional sample as well as both measures of fairness perceptions and feelings of deprivation. Results on fairness perceptions replicated those of study 1. Findings concerning deprivation included: (1) gender-based selection induced a similar level of feeling (or empathy) of deprivation among male and female professionals; (2) the level of felt deprivation was not related to the size of merit discrepancy; (3) the provision of either form of justification further intensified feelings (or empathy) of deprivation. The implications were discussed within the framework of relative deprivation theory.     

Is the job satisfaction-job performance relationship spurious? A meta-analytic examination

The job satisfaction-job performance relationship has attracted much attention throughout the history of industrial and organizational psychology. Many researchers and most lay people believe that a causal relationship exists between satisfaction and performance. In the current study, however, analyses using meta-analytic data suggested that the satisfaction-performance relationship is largely spurious. More specifically, the satisfaction-performance relationship was partially eliminated after controlling for either general personality traits (e.g., Five Factor Model traits and core self-evaluations) or for work locus of control and was almost completely eliminated after controlling for organization-based self-esteem. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Preconception Gender Selection

Safe and effective methtods of preconception gender selection through flow cytometric separation of X- and Y-bearing sperm could greatly increase the use of gender selection by couples contemplating reproduction. Such a development raises ethical, legal, and social issues about the impact of such practices on offspring, on sex ratio imbalances, and on sexism and the status of women. This paper analyzes the competing interests in preconception gender selection, and concludes that its use to increase gender variety in a family, and possibly for selecting the gender of firstborn, might in many instances be ethically acceptable.     

Selection Procedures in North America

The selection practices of organizations in Canada and the United States are reviewed. These practices are notable insofar as they rarely represent the most valid procedures, nor do they tend to be based on current research knowledge. Some reasons for the current state of selection and assessment procedures include knowledge of appropriate devices, professional competence, and client limitations. The challenge of complying with human rights legislation in North America is viewed by many practitioners as a selection constraint. It is argued, however, that legal requirements support valid selection practices by demanding professional accountability.     

Political skill as neutralizer of felt accountability—job tension effects on job performance ratings: A longitudinal investigation

This study examined the effects of felt accountability, political skill, and job tension on job performance ratings. Specifically, we hypothesized that felt accountability would lead to higher (lower) job performance ratings when coupled with high (low) levels of political skill, and that these relationships would be mediated by job tension. Data were gathered at multiple times over a one-year period (i.e., baseline performance, attitudinal variables one month later, supervisor reports of subordinate performance six months and one year after baseline performance was measured). Strong support was shown for the total effects model, whereby political skill moderated felt accountability—job performance ratings, felt accountability—job tension, and job tension—job performance ratings relationships. However, more focused analyses demonstrated that political skill most strongly moderated the job tension—job performance ratings linkage. Implications, strengths and limitations, and directions for future research are provided.     

Born to burnout: A meta-analytic path model of personality, job burnout, and work outcomes

We quantitatively summarized the relationship between Five-Factor Model personality traits, job burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment), and absenteeism, turnover, and job performance. All five of the Five-Factor Model personality traits had multiple true score correlations of .57 with emotional exhaustion, .46 with depersonalization, and .52 with personal accomplishment. Also, all three dimensions of job burnout had multiple correlations of .23 with absenteeism, .33 with turnover, and .36 with job performance. Meta-analytic path modeling indicated that the sequential ordering of job burnout dimensions was contingent on the focal outcome, supporting three different models of the burnout process. Finally, job burnout partially mediated the relationships between Five-Factor Model personality traits and turnover and job performance while fully mediating the relationships with absenteeism.     

Managers' Reactions to Utility Analysis and Perceptions of What Influences Their Decisions

Recent research on providing utility analysis (UA) information has shown small positive effects on acceptance of selection tests by human resource decision-makers (Carson, Becker, & Henderson, Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 84–96 (1998). In the present study, 218 managers provided reactions to UA information. Not only do our findings replicate the positive effects of UA, we found managers also responded favorably to UA information when asked independently of the decision making process. Specifically, when asked to rank order information in terms of what they perceived to be most influential in helping them make their final decisions, those who received UA information ranked it among the highest.     

Practical Limitations in Making Decisions Regarding the Distribution of Applicant Personality Test Scores Based on Incumbent Data

For practitioners, the possibility of faking on personality tests has potential implications that are much broader than those captured by current theoretical debates over criterion-related validity, factor structure, or psychological processes. One unexplored potential impact of response distortion involves the pass rates associated with applying cutoff scores developed using a concurrent validation design to applicant samples. This practitioner-oriented paper compared applicant and incumbent scores on three personality dimensions and uncovered significant standardized group differences. These differences greatly influenced pass rates for three different selection models, which impacted expected utility of the selection system. Potential solutions for practitioners are provided, along with recommendations for future research in this area. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychologists in Orlando, Florida.     

Utility independence of multiattribute utility theory is equivalent to standard sequence invariance of conjoint measurement

Utility independence is a central condition in multiattribute utility theory, where attributes of outcomes are aggregated in the context of risk. The aggregation of attributes in the absence of risk is studied in conjoint measurement. In conjoint measurement, standard sequences have been widely used to empirically measure and test utility functions, and to theoretically analyze them. This paper shows that utility independence and standard sequences are closely related: utility independence is equivalent to a standard sequence invariance condition when applied to risk. This simple relation between two widely used conditions in adjacent fields of research is surprising and useful. It facilitates the testing of utility independence because standard sequences are flexible and can avoid cancelation biases that affect direct tests of utility independence. Extensions of our results to nonexpected utility models can now be provided easily. We discuss applications to the measurement of quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) in the health domain.     

Using Estimates of the Output Productivity Ratio (SDp) to Improve the Accuracy and Managerial Acceptance of Utility Analysis Estimates

This study compared nursing supervisors' percentile estimates (15th, 50th, and 85th) of staff nurse performance made in terms of dollar value and two alternative metrics—output (number of patients cared for) and staffing (number of nurses required to staff a unit). Of the three estimation procedures, nursing supervisors were most confident in the accuracy of their output-based estimates and least confident in the accuracy of their dollar value-based estimates. Estimates of the standard deviation of performance as a percentage of mean performance (SDp) ranged from 19% for the staffing-based estimate to 29% for the output-based estimate. Contrary to expectations, dollar value-based SDp estimates were only minimally correlated with staffing- and output-based SDp estimates. I conclude that allowing supervisors to make percentile estimates in terms of familiar metrics has potential value for improving the accuracy and managerial acceptability of utility analysis.     

Toward a better understanding of the effects of hindrance and challenge stressors on work behavior

This study investigated the processes whereby hindrance and challenge stressors may affect work behavior. Three mechanisms were examined to explain the differential effects these stressors have demonstrated: job satisfaction, strains, and work self-efficacy. A model is proposed in which both types of stressors will result in increases in strains, but that job satisfaction is primarily involved in the relationship between hindrance stressors and citizenship behavior, and efficacy is involved in the relationship between challenge stressors and job performance. Although the results generally supported the dual-stressor framework showing meaningful relationships to the work outcomes through the proposed processes, the link between work self-efficacy and job performance was not significant. This model was analyzed using multi-source data collected from 143 employees from a variety of organizational settings. Implications for the conceptualization of stressors and the development of interventions are discussed.     

Prior and future withdrawal and performance: A meta-analysis of their relations in panel studies

While consensus exists among researchers that withdrawal and performance are related, the ordering of these constructs in proposed models frequently varies based on the theoretical focus of the study. Specifically, several extant well-being theories predict employee withdrawal will affect future performance while several turnover theories predict employee performance will affect future withdrawal. This study systematically addresses these complementary theories by conducting a meta-analysis of panel studies measuring both withdrawal and performance at two or more time periods. After accounting for sampling and measurement error, meta-analytic regression results indicate that performance is significantly negatively related to future withdrawal (ρ = − .19) even after accounting for prior withdrawal (β = − .03). However, the relationship between withdrawal and future performance (ρ = − .20) disappeared after accounting for prior performance (β = .00), although burnout did predict future performance even after accounting for prior performance (β = − .07).