Political Attitudes and the Vietnam War: A Study of College-Educated Men of the Vietnam Generation1

Groups of Vietnam veterans (n= 52), Vietnam era veterans (n= 77), and nonveterans (n= 249), all of whom had graduated from an Ivy League university in 1966, were compared in terms of their retrospectively reported general political orientation in 1966 and their current orientation and specific political attitudes in 1990–1991. The Vietnam veterans rated themselves as being more conservative than the nonveterans on political orientation and on specific political issues in 1990–1991. The Vietnam-era veterans tended to take an intermediate position politically between the other two groups. Controlling for retrospective political orientation in 1966, intensity of military experience predicted more ideological conservatism and more support for the war against Iraq, as well as a more conservative position on a number of specific political issues of current interest. Results are consistent with the idea that critical experiences in young adulthood, namely military service in Vietnam, may affect political attitudes over many years.     

The psychophysiology of combat-induced post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans

The psychophysiological responses of heart rate (HR), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, skin conductance level and forehead electromyogram were compared during: rest, mental arithmetic and combat sounds of gradually increasing intensity for five groups of Ss: Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); Vietnam veterans without PTSD but with comparable levels of combat experience; Vietnam veterans with other psychiatric disorders; Vietnam-era veterans; and nonveteran phobics. HR response to low-intensity combat sounds provided good discrimination between veterans with PTSD and the other groups and seems to resemble a conditioned emotional response.     

Military Service and Stability in the Family Course

This study explores the popular thesis that the Vietnam War had severe disruptive influences on the marriages of veterans. Analysis of life-history data from 2,303 White men who graduated from Washington State high schools in 1966 and 1967 -just before the height of the Vietnam War - shows that the Vietnam combat veterans (n = 627) were more likely to marry than were noncombat veterans who served during the Vietnam era (n = 586) or nonveterans. We found no long-term evidence of a destructive impact of Vietnam combat service on life-course sequencing or veterans' first marriages. When marital duration and other covariates were taken into account, military service reduced the probability of marital dissolution for White men. This study corroborates Card's (1983) findings for veterans who served prior to the intense combat period.     

American Military Veteran Entrepreneurs: A Comprehensive Profile of Demographic,Service History,and Psychosocial Characteristics

American military veterans are nearly twice as likely to be self-employed compared with nonveterans and are majority owners in 9% of all businesses nationwide. Despite their contribution to the broader economy and the potential for training programs to cultivate and foster successful self-employment and veteran-lead entrepreneurial ventures, research on veteran entrepreneurs remains limited. To gain a better understanding of the potential strengths and vulnerabilities of veteran entrepreneurs, the current study utilized data from a large, nationally representative sample to profile self-employed veterans (n = 230) and compare them with veterans who work as employees (n = 1,055) with respect to demographic, military service history, and psychosocial characteristics. Results indicated that self-employed veterans were older and more educated and more likely to utilize U.S. Department of Veteran’s Affairs (VA) health care. Self-employed veterans were more likely to serve in Vietnam and to serve in the military for fewer years. No differences were noted in perceived military experience, level of combat exposure, or military branch served as a function of self-employment. Although reporting more lifetime traumas, self-employed veterans did not experience higher rates of current or lifetime psychopathology or lower perceived quality of life. Potential protective resilience-promoting factors may be associated with the higher levels of openness, extraversion, optimism, achievement-orientation (purpose in life), and greater need for autonomy and professional development observed among self-employed veterans. Moreover, self-employed veterans demonstrated higher levels of gratitude, community integration, and altruistic service to others. Findings have potential to inform human resources management strategies and vocational training and reintegration initiatives for veterans.     

Vietnam Veterans: Overreporting Versus Acceptable Reporting of Symptoms

Overreporting of symptoms among Vietnam combat veterans is a problem area with little research. Five hundred thirty Vietnam-era veterans were given the MMPI. They were divided according to two criteria, combat status and reporting status. For combat status, subjects were either in Vietnam (in-country) or in the military but not in Vietnam (Vietnam-era) between 1964 and 1975. For reporting status, the MMPI overreporting criteria of the subtle-obvious (S-O) items given by Green (1986) were used. Overreporters had an S-O total of > 160, and acceptable subjects were at or below this figure. Also, all subjects who responded randomly were excluded (MMPI Test-Retest scales > 4). Results indicated that a high number of subjects randomly responded to the MMPI, and that in-country veterans met the overreporting criteria in greater numbers than the Vietnam-era group. Also, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) showed significant differences among groups in four distinct areas—MMPI basic scales, Harris-Lingoes, Wiggins, and special subscales—for both reporting status and combat status, but not for the interaction. Post hoc analyses of variance (ANOVAs) showed that reporting status was especially robust. Two Vietnam in-country PTSD types, overreporters and "acceptable" patients, are discussed. Overreporters are more pathological and a distinct challenge in treatment relative to the other in-country veterans.     

The Political Consequences of Combat: Post‐Traumatic Stress and Political Alienation Among Vietnam Veterans

On average, veterans are more civically and politically engaged than civilians. Previous research on the effects of military service, however, did not account for differences in veterans’ combat experiences. Using survey data from a representative sample of Vietnam veterans, this study presents evidence that veterans who were exposed to severe combat trauma and veterans who exhibited attitudes and fears associated with post‐traumatic stress had significantly lower levels of political efficacy and trust. The negative consequences of combat exposure and post‐traumatic stress are not mitigated when veterans have quality social support or when they seek professional counseling. These findings inform political psychology and hold implications for claims regarding the empowering influence of service in the U.S. military, increased political engagement, in particular. Among Vietnam veterans, exposure to severe combat trauma and post‐traumatic stress were both associated with reduced political efficacy and trust.     

An Exploration of Implicit Racial Bias as a Source of Diagnostic Error

Recent events led this author to realize that an error made during the Vietnam War by him and others had been due to focusing too narrowly on predisposing factors for PTSD while failing to consciously acknowledge acute systemic stressors. In not accepting that along with the stress of combat, Black troops daily experienced acute pervasive systemic racism, he failed to understand correctly their disproportionately higher levels of PTSD when compared to white troops. Motivating factors to examine this error included a recent movie by Spike Lee. Oral histories of Black veterans were then used to research the experience of Blacks in the military in two world wars and the Vietnam War. Little change in the treatment of Black service members was evident across the time frame which included WWI, WWII and the Vietnam War. An understanding of Shay’s concept of moral injury was found very valuable in understanding the consequences of PTSD.

     

Psychosocial Characteristics of Student Veterans with Service-Related Disabilities: Implications for Further Research and Occupational Therapy Involvement

The purpose of this study was to assess how post-9/11 university student veterans differ from nonveteran university students on four mental health indicators. In comparison to a demographically matched sample of nonveteran students, it was found that veterans in this study had significantly higher levels of depression and post-traumatic stress symptomatology and non-significantly lower levels of engagement in meaningful activities and meaning in life. This non-experimental study indicates that mental health differences between student veterans and their nonveteran peers do exist, and argues for the inclusion of occupational therapy services for student veterans.     

Pre-Entry Expectations,Attitudes, and Intentions to Join Predict Military Tenure

The objective of this study was to examine pre-entry expectations, attitudes, and intentions as predictors of tenure among military members. Data from nationally representative (U.S.) samples of youth on attitudes toward military service, expectations about the effect of joining the military on quality of life, and intentions to join the military were linked to tenure among those who later joined the military as adults. Results from survival analyses indicate that those who initially had no desire to join the military and did not expect military service to have positive effects on their quality of life, but ultimately joined the military nonetheless, tended to have shorter military careers. Explanations for these findings are offered along with implications for military staffing.     

Long-Term Trajectories and Service Needs for Military Families

The deployment of US military personnel to recent conflicts has been a significant stressor for their families; yet, we know relatively little about the long-term family effects of these deployments. Using data from prior military service eras, we review our current understanding of the long-term functioning and needs of military families. These data suggest that overseas deployment, exposure to combat, experiencing or participating in violence during war deployment, service member injury or disability, and combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) all have profound impacts on the functioning of military families. We offer several recommendations to address these impacts such as the provision of family-centered, trauma-informed resources to families of veterans with PTSD and veterans who experienced high levels of combat and war violence. Recent efforts to address the needs of caregivers of veterans should be evaluated and expanded, as necessary. We should also help military families plan for predictable life events likely to challenge their resilience and coping capacities. Future research should focus on the following: factors that mediate the relationship between PTSD, war atrocities, caregiver burden, and family dysfunction; effective family-centered interventions that can be scaled-up to meet the needs of a dispersed population; and system-level innovations necessary to ensure adequate access to these interventions.     

Placement and the Vietnam-Era Veteran in Transition

Full employment of Vietnam-era veterans is a major goal. The success of placement efforts rests heavily upon employment service counselors. This article briefly traces the etiology and nature of our concern for. Vietnam-era vets and suggests that a successful placement program depends largely upon three factors: (a) an understanding of the characteristics of present-day veterans, (b) an awareness of allied agencies, programs, and industries comprising the network of helping services, and (c) intimate knowledge of employers, their personnel representatives, the nature of the jobs available, and the practical workings of the placement process.     

War-Zone Exposure and Long-Term General Life Adjustment Among Vietnam Veterans: Findings From Two Perspectives1

This two-part investigation examined associations between service in Vietnam and indices of long-term general life adjustment using a national sample of male and female members of the Vietnam generation. In Study 1, we documented reasonably high levels of satisfaction and attainment among Vietnam veterans, levels that differed minimally, on average, from those who served elsewhere and those who never served in the military. In Study 2, dimensions of war-zone stressor exposure were only marginally related to satisfaction and attainment, in contrast with research documenting strong relationships with psychopathol-ogy. These findings support the importance of expanding our thinking about dimensions of mental illness and mental health.     

Comparison Of Narratives Of Loss Experiences Of World War Ii and Vietnam Combat Veterans

Abstract

While their continuing grief now is receiving periodic media attention, for years and even decades, American soldiers who fought in World War II (WWII) and who fought in Vietnam have suffered their life-altering experiences of loss in silence. Many of the WWII generation now have died and cannot share their grief with us. We as scholars of loss and trauma have a special obligation to reach out to the living survivors of WWII for information about their experiences. As has been often noted (e.g., Kuenning, 1990), for years after the conclusion of the Vietnam War, the stories of loss and grief of Vietnam veterans were not welcomed. The purpose of this chapter is to report some comparative narrative evidence from veterans of these two wars. Our major question was whether strong differences between groups in perceived long-term impact of combat experience would be reported.     

Quality of Life in Gulf War Veterans: the Influence of Recency and Persistence of Psychiatric Morbidity

Important contributors to quality of life (QOL), such as psychosocial factors, have received limited exploration in veteran populations, in contrast to a significant amount of research focused on health-related quality of life (HRQL). This study investigated QOL and HRQL amongst Gulf War veterans compared with an era-military comparison group 20 years after the 1990/91 Gulf War, and whether psychiatric status over time and psychiatric comorbidities predicted QOL and HRQL. We then investigated which of a range of psychological health, physical health and social factors contribute greatest to QOL. Psychological interviews and postal questionnaires were administered to a cohort of Gulf War veterans and a military-era comparison group in 2000–02 and 2011–12. Gulf War veterans had poorer QOL and HRQL compared with a military comparison group, but the pattern of factors that influenced QOL was the same for both groups. Poorer QOL and HRQL were significantly associated with more recent and persistent psychiatric morbidity over time. Further analyses showed that affective disorders, followed by anxiety disorders had the largest impact on QOL and HRQL, and that QOL and HRQL were negatively affected by each additional psychiatric diagnosis. The importance of these findings was highlighted in a structural equation model that revealed psychological health contributed most to QOL, social support contributed a moderate amount, but physical health contributed only a very small amount. QOL in veterans is an important issue even many years after deployment and psychological health plays a predominant role in QOL.

     

Childhood Sexual Assault,Quality of Life,and Psychiatric Comorbidity in Veterans With Military and Civilian Sexual Trauma

Veterans with military sexual trauma (MST) are at risk for a variety of psychiatric conditions, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Survivors of MST are also likely to experience diminished quality of life (QoL). Individuals with higher lifetime incidence of sexual trauma may also be at increased risk for poorer outcomes in QoL and psychiatric symptomatology. The differences in psychological sequelae among those who have experienced sexual trauma as children, and those whose sexual trauma exposure is limited to adulthood are relatively understudied. The majority of sexual trauma literature has focused primarily on civilian trauma, and comparatively few studies have specifically examined psychosocial sequelae (e.g., QoL) in veterans with MST. This study examined how childhood sexual abuse (CSA) affects overall QoL as well as severity of PTSD and depressive symptoms. Veterans who reported CSA had significantly greater depression symptom severity than veterans who did not. No significant differences in PTSD symptom severity or QoL were found between veterans who did and did not report CSA. Results highlight the need for further examination of the relationship between CSA and depression in veterans with MST-related PTSD who also report CSA.     

Return to Ithaca: A perspective on marriage and love in post traumatic stress disorder

This paper discusses the interactive effects of character development, love in marriage, and the stress pathology in the Vietnam War combatant. Over years of treating Vietnam veterans and their spouses, the authors have observed common patterns of interstructural or intercharacterological meshing between the Vietnam warrior and his wife. Implications for treatment are discussed along with useful intervention strategies.     

Cumulative trauma and midlife well-being in American women who served in Vietnam: effects of combat exposure and postdeployment social support

Background and Objectives: Research increasingly demonstrates that trauma exposure can have cumulative effects, yet much remains to be learned about effects of cumulative trauma, particularly regarding longer term adjustment. One such trauma, combat exposure, is insufficiently understood, especially for women, who are increasingly engaged in professional combat activities. Design: The study comprised a cross-sectional survey assessing multiple aspects of current well-being in women approximately 25 years after their service in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Methods: Participants were 1374 women (78% military and 22% nonmilitary; mean age = 59.7). This study investigated the relations between three separate categories of trauma exposure (childhood, adulthood, and combat) and well-being and examined whether perceived social support at return from Vietnam moderated the association between combat exposure and well-being. Results: While both childhood and adulthood trauma exposure related to midlife well-being, combat exposure still uniquely predicted outcomes. Further, postdeployment perceived social support moderated the association of combat and well-being: recollected higher perceived social support at homecoming buffered participants from the links between combat exposure and well-being. Conclusions: These results may have important implications for interventions to reduce the impact of traumatic experiences, particularly in light of the increasing exposure of women to direct combat events.     

Prolonged exposure therapy for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: comparing outcomes for veterans of different wars

There is significant support for exposure therapy as an effective treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) across a variety of populations, including veterans; however, there is little empirical information regarding how veterans of different war theaters respond to exposure therapy. Accordingly, questions remain regarding therapy effectiveness for treatment of PTSD for veterans of different eras. Such questions have important implications for the dissemination of evidence based treatments, treatment development, and policy. The current study compared treatment outcomes across 112 veterans of the Vietnam War, the first Persian Gulf War, and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. All subjects were diagnosed with PTSD and enrolled in prolonged exposure (PE) treatment. Veterans from all three groups showed significant improvement in PTSD symptoms, with veterans from Vietnam and Afghanistan/Iraq responding similarly to treatment. Persian Gulf veterans did not respond to treatment at the same rate or to the same degree as veterans from the other two eras. Questions and issues regarding the effectiveness of evidence based treatment for veterans from different eras are discussed.     

Mental Health Risk and Social Ecological Variables Associated with Educational Attainment for Gulf War Veterans: Implications for Veterans Returning to Civilian Life

This study examines how post-secondary educational attainment among young veterans of the first gulf war affects their mental health status. The all-volunteer military attracts recruits by offering them veterans’ educational benefits. Education should help veterans adjust to civilian life. Few studies have shown whether education following military service helps improve veterans’ mental health, however. Viewing resiliency, life span and life course, and social geography theories through the lens of social ecology, it is hypothesized that selected contextual factors in the personal, interpersonal, and organizational domains could mediate or moderate the relationship between education and veterans’ mental health. Informational social networks showed an association with obtaining mental illness treatment. Recent treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) showed an association with use of veterans’ educational benefits. Residing with a small nuclear family in conjunction with having higher levels of health and educational benefits and a higher family income was associated with higher educational attainment.     

Self-reported changes in subjective health and anthrax vaccination as reported by over 900 Persian Gulf War era veterans

A 1999 study of United Kingdom servicemembers by Unwin, et al. recently found significant relationships between anthrax and other vaccinations, reactions to those vaccines, and later health problems for male current or former active military Gulf War veterans. Likewise, in 2000 Steele and in 1998 Gilroy found possible adverse effects of vaccinations on Gulf War veterans. However, the role of such vaccinations remains controversial; more recent government reports continue to dispute the existence of any data that might reflect adversely on the role of vaccinations on the health of Gulf War veterans. To address this controversy, the current study assessed similar relationships for over 900 Reserve Component Gulf War Era veterans from Ohio and nearby states. Gulf War veterans were more likely to report poorer health than non-Gulf veterans. Female veterans were more likely to report mild or severe reactions to vaccines than male veterans. Those veterans who received anthrax vaccine reported more reactions to vaccines than those who did not receive anthrax vaccine. Declines in long-term subjective health were associated with receipt of anthrax vaccine by Gulf War veterans but not for those who did not deploy to the Gulf, although few of the latter received anthrax vaccine. Regardless of deployment status, veterans who reported more severe reactions to vaccines were more likely to report declines in subjective health. Female veterans reported poorer health during the Gulf War than did male veterans, but sex was not related to veterans' reports of subjective health at subsequent times. It is recommended that servicemembers who experience severe reactions to anthrax vaccine be medically reevaluated before receiving further anthrax vaccine and that careful follow-ups be conducted of those receiving the vaccine currently, in accordance with Nass's 1999 recommendations. We also recommend that safer alternatives to thimerosal (a mercury sodium salt, 50% mercury) be used to preserve all vaccines.