Detecting state and trait anxiety from auditory and visual cues: a meta-analysis

Observers' ability to detect state anxiety and trait anxiety in others was evaluated in a meta-analysis that also included a critical moderator variable, communication channel. The overall effect size (r) for accuracy was .39 for the 46 state anxiety studies and .26 for the 34 trait anxiety studies. However, the effect of communication channel was very substantial in magnitude and highly significant; it also interacted with the type of anxiety. State anxiety was correctly identified more often from audio-only stimuli (M r = .49) compared with video-only cues (r = .24), whereas the opposite was true for trait anxiety, where video-only cues resulted in greater accuracy (r = .31) compared with audio-only stimuli (r = .05). Results indicated that the moment-to-moment change in emotion (state anxiety) may be better communicated with vocal/verbal stimuli, whereas more stable features of personality (trait anxiety) may be more apparent from body and facial cues.     

Detecting Anxiety and Defensiveness from Visual and Auditory Cues

ABSTRACT Defensive individuals have been shown to differ from non-defensive individuals on a number of physiological and behavioral measures. We report two studies on observers' inferences of defensiveness, and the contribution of communication channels in the inference of defensiveness. Observers judged high and low state anxious segments of high and low trait anxious defensive and nondefensive individuals. Accurate assessments were made of (a) defensiveness, (b) state anxiety, and (c) trait anxiety: Individuals with higher levels of each variable were perceived as more anxious compared with the lower level. Effects for defensiveness and state anxiety were greater in audio-only segments, while effects for trait anxiety were greater in video-only segments. Inferences of defensiveness were greater at higher levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety. Low trait anxious defensive individuals were perceived as more anxious than the true low trait anxious. Results for defensiveness and trait anxiety were replicated in Study 2, and observers' perceptions of state anxiety matched individuals' self-reports: Defensive individuals with maximal differences between high and low state anxiety were seen as more anxious in high state anxiety, while defensive individuals with minimal differences between high and low state anxiety were regarded as less anxious in high state anxiety.     

不同线索下特质焦虑个体的返回抑制

焦虑与注意偏向的研究是近年来情绪与认知领域的热点。为探讨特质焦虑个体的注意偏向特点及其返回抑制能力是否受不同线索的调节, 采用特质焦虑量表筛选高特质焦虑大学生29名, 低特质焦虑大学生28名完成线索-靶子任务。要求被试在提示线索消失后, 对位置进行快而准地辨别反应, 分别探索中性和情绪性提示线索下被试的返回抑制。结果发现：(1)在中性线索条件下, 高焦虑个体平均反应时慢于低焦虑个体。(2) 在情绪线索条件下, 高焦虑个体在负性线索下的反应时小于在正性线索下的反应时; 高、低焦虑个体在各种SOA条件下均出现了返回抑制, 但各组返回抑制量受到情绪线索的调节：在正性情绪线索条件下, 两组返回抑制量没有显著差异; 在负性情绪线索下, 高焦虑个体返回抑制量显著小于低焦虑个体。这表明, (1)焦虑个体的注意偏向受到刺激信息的影响：只对负性情绪线索出现注意警觉; (2)只有在涉及负性情绪信息时高、低焦虑个体返回抑制能力才有差异, 高焦虑个体存在对负性情绪线索的抑制困难。     

The road to the unconscious self not taken: Discrepancies between self‐ and observer‐inferences about implicit dispositions from nonverbal behavioural cues

To what extent can individuals gain insight into their own or another person's implicit dispositions' We investigated whether self‐perceivers versus neutral observers can detect implicit dispositions from nonverbal behavioural cues contained in video feedback (cue validity) and whether these cues are in turn used as a valid basis for explicit dispositional inferences (cue utilization). Across three studies in the domains of extraversion and anxiety we consistently obtained reliable cue validity and cue utilization for neutral observers but not for self‐perceivers. An additional measure of state inferences in Study 3 showed that one reason for the lack of mediation in self‐perceivers is their reluctance to use their state inferences as a basis for more general trait inferences. We conclude that people have a ‘blind spot’ with respect to the nonverbal behavioural manifestations of their unconscious selves, even though neutral observers may readily detect and utilize this information for dispositional inferences. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting Burnout Among HIV/AIDS and Oncology Health Care Workers

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between repressive coping, controllability, self-esteem and comparative optimism for health-related events. Repressors (low trait anxiety-high defensiveness) compared with both (a) specific control groups on anxiety and defensiveness (e.g., low-anxious, high-anxious and defensive high anxious) and (b) total nonrepressors were significantly more comparatively optimistic for health-related events. Repressors remained significantly more comparatively optimistic than total nonrepressors when self-esteem was partialled out.

For individual events, repressors differed in comparative optimism for events which were rated as high controllability. It is concluded that repressors are exhibiting comparative optimism over and above nonrepressor groups for events which are rated as controllable. These results suggest that comparative optimism findings may be exaggerated by not controlling for the disproportionate influence of repressors in skewing sample means. Suggestions for future studies are discussed.     

Effects of state anxiety on performance using a task-switching paradigm: An investigation of attentional control theory

Low- and high-anxious participants performed arithmetical tasks under task-switching or nontask-switching conditions. These tasks were low or high in complexity. The task on each trial was either explicitly cued or not cued. We assumed that demands on attentional control would be greater in the task-switching condition than in the nontask-switching condition, and would be greater with high-complexity tasks than with low-complexity ones. We also assumed that demands on attentional control would be greater when cues were absent rather than present. According to attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007), anxiety impairs attentional control processes required to shift attention optimally within and between tasks. We predicted that there would be greater negative effects of high state anxiety in the task-switching condition than in the nontask-switching condition. Our theoretical predictions were supported, suggesting that state anxiety reduces attentional control.     

Predicting alternative strategies for preserving a belief in a just world: The case of repressive coping style

Researchers suggest that observers of innocent suffering will negatively evaluate the victim as a strategy for maintaining their belief in a just world. We propose an alternative class of strategies and test whether individual differences in repressive coping style predict the type of strategy people will use. In the first two studies, we exposed repressors versus nonrepressors to victims whose suffering should pose a high versus low threat to the need to believe in a just world. Repressors had a greater tendency to positively reappraise the high threat victim's suffering. Nonrepressors had a greater tendency to negatively evaluate the high threat victim. A third study replicated the results for the high threat conditions and suggested that repressors' positive reappraisal is not because of a tendency to minimize suffering. Our research (i) demonstrates a class of strategies for preserving the belief in a just world other than negatively evaluating the victim and (ii) is among the first to examine directly an individual difference predictor of alternative just‐world preservation strategies. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Can Deception by Salespersons and Customers Be Detected Through Nonverbal Behavioral Cues?1

Experiments on behavioral lie detection have indicated that observers can detect a communicator's lies with above-chance accuracy, and that detection accuracy may be enhanced when observers pay special attention to certain vocal and body-movement cues. The present experiment asked whether deception in (simulated) sales communications by retail salespersons and automobile customers could likewise be detected nonverbally. Contrary to much of the prior literature, deception-detection in this study was not above chance, apparently because the salespersons' and customers' nonverbal cues simply were not correlated with lying. Though the observers seemed quite suspicious and did not give communicators the “benefit of the doubt”, they could not discriminate the communicators' deceptive communications from their truthful ones. Many—perhaps most—of the lies in sales communications may be told by confident, well-practiced deceivers whose nonverbal behavior is unlikely to reveal their lying.     

Detecting racial identification: The role of phenotypic prototypicality

Little is known about what cues are used to infer the racial identification of others and whether or not identification inferences are accurate. Three studies provide evidence that phenotypic prototypicality (PP), the degree to which an individual looks like a prototypical member of his or her racial group, shapes inferences about racial identification. Participants assumed that high PP Blacks were more racially identified than low PP Blacks. In addition to serving as an identification cue for observers, PP was related to self-perceptions, as Blacks and Latinos who were higher in PP were in fact more identified with their racial group than minorities who were lower in PP. Furthermore, unacquainted judges accurately detected Black and Latino targets' racial identification based on PP. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for intergroup relationships.     

Emotional deceit: False words versus false action

What speaks louder, false words or false action? Raters assessed the anxiety level of 10 actors portraying their actual anxiety level and simulated displays of high anxiety. Raters were required to base judgments on either video cues alone or audio cues alone. Findings indicate that false words speak louder than false action, with audio-based judgments generating greater judgmental error in both straight and dissembled anxiety conditions. Although raters expressed equal confidence in judgments based on either verbal or nonverbal cues, results indicated that verbal cues played a larger role in emotional deceit. Differences between real and simulated anxiety cues were delineated, suggesting ways of detecting emotional deception. Results were discussed in light of current thought regarding channel contribution in deception.     

Therapist Awareness of Client Resistance in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Clients' resistance relates negatively to their retention and outcomes in psychotherapy; thus, it has been increasingly identified as a key process marker in both research and practice. This study compared therapists' postsession ratings of resistance with those of trained observers in the context of 40 therapist–client dyads receiving 15 sessions of cognitive-behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Therapist and observer ratings were then examined as correlates of proximal (therapeutic alliance quality and homework compliance) and distal (posttreatment worry severity) outcomes. Although there was reasonable concordance between rater perspectives, observer ratings were highly and consistently related to both proximal and distal outcomes, while therapist ratings were not. These findings underscore the need to enhance therapists' proficiency in identifying important and often covert in-session clinical phenomena such as the cues reflecting resistance and noncollaboration.     

Recollecting events associated with victimization

Subjects first completed social desirability and anxiety personality scales and then read a story about a woman meeting her brother for lunch. Some subjects were then told that the story involved sexual abuse. A week later all subjects took a multiple-choice memory test over the story. The results indicated that subjects categorized as repressors based on the personality scales had a lower proportion of negative than positive errors than did the nonrepressors, but only when they believed the story was about sexual abuse. However, repressors answered correctly as many items as did nonrepressors. The results were consistent with the idea that repressors remember as much about victimization experiences as do nonrepressors but are more likely to fill in the missing details of victimization experiences with positive reconstructions designed to reduce the over-all negative quality associated with victimization.     

Children's Responses to Conflicting Auditory and Visual Features of a Televised Narrative

Children at three age levels (5–6, 8–9, and 10–12 years) were exposed to a televised story in which the auditory and visual content conflicted at the semantic level: a character was depicted as behaving kindly in one channel and cruelly in the other. Comparison groups were exposed to audio-only and video-only versions of the program. It was found that awareness of the auditory-visual discrepancy, assessed at the end of the testing session, increased with age. On a recognition memory test, the presence of conflicting video significantly reduced recognition of the audio content among children in the two older groups, but not among those in the youngest group. This pattern did not emerge for recognition of video content. However, the tendency to interpret video depictions in terms of the inconsistent audio information increased with age. On a measure of free recall, mention of the content of both channels, rather than only one channel, also increased with age. Finally, for all three age groups, personality ratings of the central character were less extreme among respondents exposed to the mismatch version of the program than among those exposed to the audio-only or video-only versions (in which the character exhibited only one type of behavior). Overall, the results were interpreted as indicating a developmental increase in utilization of the semantic content of both channels to form a unified representation of the events in the narrative. However, evaluations of the character's personality suggest that children at all three age levels integrated the content of both channels to some degree.     

Interacting effects of worry and anxiety on attentional disengagement from threat

Recent work suggests that the ability to disengage attention from threatening information is impaired in people who suffer from anxiety and dysphoria. It has been suggested that this impaired ability to disengage from threat might specifically be associated with the tendency to perseverate about threat (i.e., worry), which is a main characteristic of anxiety disorders and a wide range of other psychopathologies. However, no studies have yet addressed this issue. The present study examined whether trait worry as well as worry intensity after experimental worry induction are associated with impaired ability to disengage attention from threatening cues (angry faces), independently from or in conjunction with anxiety. Sixty-one participants performed a visual cueing experiment that required detection of a target stimulus at one of two possible locations. Prior to the target neutral, happy or angry facial cues appeared at one of these two locations; when there is a relatively long period between the cue and the target (>300 ms), an overall faster responding to invalidly cued trials relative to validly cued trials is believed to indicate inhibition of return (IOR) to a recently attended location. A reduced IOR for angry faces was only found when both trait worry and anxiety were high. When anxiety was kept constant, both trait worry and state worry were associated with enhanced IOR for neutral faces instead. The results seem to suggest that specific threat-related deficiencies in IOR may be a function of the co-occurrence of worry and anxiety.     

Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguous facial expressions: The influence of contextual cues

In 3 experiments, we investigate how anxiety influences interpretation of ambiguous facial expressions of emotion. Specifically, we examine whether anxiety modulates the effect of contextual cues on interpretation. Participants saw ambiguous facial expressions. Simultaneously, positive or negative contextual information appeared on the screen. Participants judged whether each expression was positive or negative. We examined the impact of verbal and visual contextual cues on participants' judgements. We used 3 different anxiety induction procedures and measured levels of trait anxiety (Experiment 2). Results showed that high state anxiety resulted in greater use of contextual information in the interpretation of the facial expressions. Trait anxiety was associated with mood-congruent effects on interpretation, but not greater use of contextual information.     

Test anxiety and ego-threatening stress: Over- (and under-) estimation of emotional reactivity

Abstract

This study examined discrepancies between subjective and objective measures of state anxiety as a function of test anxiety in undergraduates. Under evaluative stress conditions, state anxiety was assessed in terms of (a) self-reported cognitive and somatic anxiety, (b) behavioral reactivity (motor and facial tension, avoidance comments and avoidance of eye contact), (c) physiological arousal (heart rate and skin resistance), and (d) cognitive and motor task performance. Participants high in test anxiety showed disproportionately greater self-reported than objective state anxiety. In contrast, those low in test anxiety showed lower self-reported than objective anxiety. The high- and the low-test-anxiety groups differed only in self-reported emotional reactivity. In line with current cognitive theories of anxiety, overestimation of reactivity in high-test anxiety, as well as underestimation in low-test anxiety, are conceptualized as a hypervigilance bias and an avoidance bias, respectively, in processing internal cues, i.e., prioritization and inhibition of attention to one's own behavioral and physiological signs of distress.     

Social Anxiety is Associated with a Negatively Distorted Perception of One's Own Voice

According to cognitive models of social anxiety, negatively distorted self-images have a central role in the development and maintenance of social anxiety. In the present study, the relationship between social anxiety and the perception of one's own voice was investigated in a sample of 17 undergraduate students. The participants were asked to recount a story aloud in front of a tape recorder, and then to rate their voice characteristics on a Voice Evaluation Questionnaire. Independent observers (speech therapy students) were then asked to listen to the tape recordings and to rate the participants' voice characteristics on an equivalent version of the Voice Evaluation Questionnaire. Two hypotheses were contrasted: a skill deficits hypothesis and a cognitive distortion hypothesis. The results supported the cognitive distortion hypothesis. A high level of social performance anxiety was associated with an underestimation of one's voice qualities, compared with the independent observers. It is suggested that sound-tape feedback with cognitive preparation should be tested as a method for correcting the negatively distorted voice perception that is associated with social anxiety.