Detecting Anxiety and Defensiveness from Visual and Auditory Cues

ABSTRACT Defensive individuals have been shown to differ from non-defensive individuals on a number of physiological and behavioral measures. We report two studies on observers' inferences of defensiveness, and the contribution of communication channels in the inference of defensiveness. Observers judged high and low state anxious segments of high and low trait anxious defensive and nondefensive individuals. Accurate assessments were made of (a) defensiveness, (b) state anxiety, and (c) trait anxiety: Individuals with higher levels of each variable were perceived as more anxious compared with the lower level. Effects for defensiveness and state anxiety were greater in audio-only segments, while effects for trait anxiety were greater in video-only segments. Inferences of defensiveness were greater at higher levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety. Low trait anxious defensive individuals were perceived as more anxious than the true low trait anxious. Results for defensiveness and trait anxiety were replicated in Study 2, and observers' perceptions of state anxiety matched individuals' self-reports: Defensive individuals with maximal differences between high and low state anxiety were seen as more anxious in high state anxiety, while defensive individuals with minimal differences between high and low state anxiety were regarded as less anxious in high state anxiety.     

个体经验和线索提示对焦虑共情的影响

通过考察经验水平和线索提示对他人焦虑共情的影响特点,揭示有经验者低共情的原因和提高共情的方法。结果发现:(1)有经验组的焦虑共情得分显著低于正在经验组;(2)详细线索条件下被试的共情得分显著高于概括线索条件下被试的得分;(3)详细线索条件下,经验匹配被试的焦虑共情显著高于经验不匹配被试。研究表明,在一般情境和简单线索条件下有经验被试对他人没有高的焦虑共情,但详细线索提示可以唤醒情绪记忆,显著提高有经验被试的共情水平。     

Why Women Take Fewer Risk Than Men Do: The Mediating Role of State Anxiety

Gender studies have showed that women take fewer risks than men do. Previous research has also provided evidence for a link between negative affect (anxiety and depressive mood) and risk-taking. Little is known about the relationships among these factors. We examined the role of state anxiety in the relationship between gender and risk-taking. Fully 149 undergraduate students filled out the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI) before playing the hot version of the Columbia Card Task (hot CCT), which is designed to measure emotionally based risk-taking behavior. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that gender and state anxiety were associated with risk-taking even when controlling for age, depressive mood, and trait anxiety. Moreover, results pointed out that gender is related to risk-taking through state anxiety. These results offer insights into gender research, as well as affective and decision science. Implications for future studies and applied interventions are discussed.     

The Role of Visual Cues in Movement Control and Motor Memory

3 groups of 12 Ss performed an index finger letter-writing task with visual information but without kinesthetic cues (+V?K), followed immediately by repeating the same letters without vision (?V?K). All groups performed 6 test trials of + V?K, then ?V?K writing. Group 1 had no experience with the task prior to the test trials, Group 2 practiced the letters without vision with kinesthetic cues (?V+K), while Group 3 had visual and kinesthetic practice (+V+K). Visual cues efficiently guided performance in the absence of kinesthesis, and visual memory traces had a marked reinforcing effect. Further, learned reliance on kinesthetic cues was present even in +V?K performance, but reliance on visual cues did not develop.     

The Role of Anger in Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Little is known about the role of anger in the context of anxiety disorders, particularly with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). The aim of study was to examine the relationship between specific dimensions of anger and GAD. Participants (N = 381) completed a series of questionnaires, including the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire (GAD-Q-IV; Newman et al., 2002, Behavior Therapy, 33, 215–233), the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-2; Spielberger 1999, State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2: STAXI-2 professional manual, Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources) and the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ; Buss & Perry 1992, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452–459). The GAD-Q-IV identifies individuals who meet diagnostic criteria for GAD (i.e. GAD analogues) and those who do not (non-GAD). The STAXI-2 includes subscales for trait anger, externalized anger expression, internalized anger expression, externalized anger control and internalized anger control. The AQ includes subscales for physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger and hostility. The GAD-Q-IV significantly correlated with all STAXI-2 and AQ subscales (r's ranging from .10 to .46). Multivariate analyses of variance revealed that GAD analogues significantly differed from non-GAD participants on the combined STAXI-2 subscales (η² = .098); high levels of trait anger and internalized anger expression contributed the most to GAD group membership. GAD analogue participants also significantly differed from non-GAD participants on the combined AQ subscales (η² = .156); high levels of anger (affective component of aggression) and hostility contributed the most to GAD group membership. Within the GAD analogue group, the STAXI-2 and AQ subscales significantly predicted GAD symptom severity (R ² = .124 and .198, respectively). Elevated levels of multiple dimensions of anger characterize individuals who meet diagnostic criteria for GAD.     

On the Role of Vertical Texture Cues in Height Perception

When people judge height from the top looking down they tend to overestimate vertical distance. Initial findings suggest that this perceptual bias may be in part due to the experienced fear of falling. However, previous studies did not control for potentially relevant optical invariants, especially vertical texture gradient cues, that may inform such perceptual judgments. In this study, we examined to what degree texture gradient cues may account for the perceptual bias in height perception. To this end, in 2 different conditions in which vertical texture gradient cues were either present or absent, participants provided distance and size judgments from an elevated position (5.68 m) and from the ground. Results revealed a systematic overestimation of vertical extent and object size when judged from a height. Yet, the absence or presence of texture gradient cues did not differentially influence these judgments. Finally, although fear levels were reported to be larger at the elevated position than on the ground, fear levels did not correlate with the perceptual bias, thereby demanding further research into the mechanisms underlying the perceptual bias in height perception.     

The Use of Bigfoots Reduces State Anxiety in Novice Skiers

Novice skiers’ learning and performance is often hampered by the anxiety of falling. We investigated if the use of Bigfoot (i.e., short skis) for the first 4 of 10 days of a skiing course reduces anxiety. We surveyed state anxiety at the beginning and on the ninth day of the skiing course. Compared to a control group, which completed the course on normal skis, the Bigfoot group showed significantly reduced state anxiety on the ninth day, even though they had been performing on normal skis for the last 5 days.     

The Role of Anxiety in Perceiving and Realizing Affordances

Three experiments were conducted to examine the role of anxiety in perceiving and realizing affordances in wall climbing. Identical traverses were situated high and low on a climbing wall to manipulate anxiety. In Experiment 1, participants judged their maximal overhead reachability and performed maximal reaches on the climbing wall. Anxiety was found to reduce both perceived and actual maximal reaching height. In Experiment 2, participants climbed from right to left and back again on the high and low traverses, which now entailed an abundance of holds. Consistent with the reduction of perceived and actual maximal reaching height found in Experiment 1, anxiety led to the use of more holds. Finally, in Experiment 3, points of light were sequentially projected around the participants while they were climbing to measure attention. As participants detected fewer lights in the high-anxiety condition, it was concluded that anxiety narrowed attention. In general, the results underscored that the actor's emotional state plays an important role in perceiving and realizing affordances and that the perception of affordances changes as the accompanying action capabilities change.     

A Meta-analytic Review of the Role of Child Anxiety Sensitivity in Child Anxiety

Conflicting findings exist regarding (1) whether anxiety sensitivity (AS) is a construct distinct from anxiety in children and (2) the specific nature of the role of AS in child anxiety. This study uses meta-analytic techniques to (1) determine whether youth (ages 6–18 years) have been reported to experience AS, (2) examine whether AS differentiates anxiety disordered youth from youth without diagnoses, and (3) ascertain whether AS distinguishes youth with panic disorder from those with other anxiety disorders. The weighted mean effect size analyses included 15 studies and 6,579 participants. Results suggested positive correlational relationships between AS and anxiety for children (r = 0.26) and adolescents (r = 0.36) and higher levels of AS for anxiety disordered youth than non-clinical youth (d = 0.64). Findings tentatively suggested higher levels of AS for youth with panic disorder than youth diagnosed with other anxiety disorders. Implications and future directions in the research of child AS are discussed.     

The Assessment of State and Trait Anxiety with the Rorschach Test

The literature on the assessment of anxiety with the Rorschach Test was reviewed in terms of Spielberger's conception of anxiety as a relatively stable personality disposition (A-Trait), and as a transitory emotional state (A-State). On the basis of the research evidence, it was concluded that: (1) Shading variables are the best Rorschach measures of A-State; (2) Movement appears to be the most promising Rorschach variable for measuring A-Trait; (3) Longer reaction times and a reduction in the total number of responses seem to reflect defensive reactions of caution and guardedness that accompany high levels of A-State; (4) Elizur's RCT anxiety scale appears to be more closely related to A-Trait than A-State, but may be a confounded measure of both.     

The Role of Emotion Regulation in the Treatment of Child Anxiety Disorders

In this review, we examine the role of emotion regulation in the treatment of children with anxiety disorders. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has been shown to “work” for children with anxiety disorders and it has been categorized as an evidence-based treatment. However, most studies have shown that the treatment is effective for about 60–70% of children, leaving the remaining children symptomatic and oftentimes with persisting psychological disorders. Of importance, it has also been shown that many children with anxiety disorders demonstrate poor emotion regulation skills. Despite these findings, little attention has been directed toward incorporating emotion regulation strategies into these relatively effective cognitive-behavioral treatments. It is possible that CBT programs do not work as well for a portion of children because their emotion regulation deficits, if present, are not being targeted sufficiently. In this review, it is suggested that adding an emotion regulation component could increase treatment efficacy. In addition, strategies aimed at improving emotion regulation at the individual level and at the family level are introduced. Details of how improved emotion regulation skills could be beneficial in bringing about change are discussed. Finally, issues of measurement and the clinical implications for research and practice are considered.     

Reassessing the Role of Anxiety in Vote Choice

Much recent political psychology scholarship has examined the role of anxiety in vote choice. This work generally argues that anxiety affects vote choice indirectly by causing citizens to more thoroughly search for and process political information. This indirect effect of anxiety leads citizens to rely less on heuristics, such as party, and more on substantive information, such as policy positions. The most prominent example of this scholarship is the Affective Intelligence (AI) theory of emotions. In this paper, we use cross-sectional and panel survey data to test AI against two simpler alternatives: (1) that emotions directly influence candidate evaluations and (2) that candidate evaluations directly influence emotions. We first show that these simpler alternatives can produce the complex, cross-sectional interactions that provide the principal support for AI. Then, using panel data to better assess causal direction, we find little support for AI, some evidence that emotions directly influence candidate evaluations, and strong evidence that candidate evaluations directly influence emotions. Scholars, we conclude, should be hesitant to abandon these simpler explanations in favor of AI.     

The Role of Personality in Psychotherapy for Anxiety and Depression

ABSTRACT A trait approach to personality has many implications for psychotherapy. Given that traits contribute to the expression of symptoms of common psychiatric disorders, are moderately heritable, and relatively stable (yet also dynamic to some extent), long‐term change in symptoms is possible but is likely to be limited. Analogous to the manner in which genes set the reaction range for phenotype, standing on certain traits may set the patient's “therapeutic range.” On the other hand, some of the same traits that may limit the depth of therapeutic benefits might also increase their breadth. In addition, taking the patient's standing on different traits into account can inform the choice of therapeutic strategy and targets and can affect the formation of the therapeutic alliance and compliance with self‐help exercises. Finally, other aspects of personality beyond traits, such as ego development and narrative identity, also appear to have important implications for psychotherapy.     

Localizing Localization: The Role of Working Memory in Auditory Localization

It is unclear from current accounts of working memory which, if any, of its components might be involved in our ability to specify the location of a sound source. A series of studies were performed to assess the degree of interference in localization of broadband noise, by a concurrent articulatory suppression (articulatory loop—Experiment 1), serial recall (phonological store and articulatory loop—Experiment 2), and Paced Visual Serial Addition Test (central executive—Experiment 3). No significant disruption of auditory localization was revealed by the first two experiments, ruling out a role for the phonological loop in auditory localization. In Experiment 3, a large degree of error was exhibited in localization, when performed concurrently with the addition task, indicating a requirement for central resources. This suggestion is confirmed by comparison of localization performance across all three studies, which demonstrates a clear deterioration in performance as the demand of concurrent tasks on central resources increases. Finally, concurrent localization was shown to disrupt the primacy portion of the serial position curve, as well as performance on the Paced Visual Serial Addition Test.     

Using Retrieval Cues to Attenuate Return of Fear in Individuals With Public Speaking Anxiety

Even after successful exposure, relapse is not uncommon. Based on the retrieval model of fear extinction (e.g., Vervliet, Craske, & Hermans, 2013), return of fear can occur after exposure due to an elapse of time (spontaneous recovery) or change in context (contextual renewal). The use of external salient stimuli presented throughout extinction (i.e., retrieval cues [RCs]) has been suggested as a potential solution to this problem (Bouton, 2002). The current study examined whether RCs attenuated return of fear in individuals with public speaking anxiety. Sixty-five participants completed a brief exposure while presented with two RC stimuli aimed at a variety of senses (visual, tactile, olfactory, and auditory). Later, half the participants were tested for return of fear in a context different from the exposure context, and the other half in the same context. Half of each context group were presented with the same cues as in exposure, while the other half were not. Return of fear due to an elapse of time, change in context, and effects of RCs were evaluated on subjective, behavioral, and physiological measures of anxiety. Although contextual renewal was not observed, results supported effects of RCs in reducing spontaneous recovery on behavioral and physiological measures of anxiety. There was also evidence that participants who were reminded of feeling anxious during exposure by the RCs benefited more from using them at follow-up, whereas those who perceived the cues as comforting (safety signals) benefited less. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

The Effects of Personality Tests on State and Trait Anxiety

52 college student volunteers received the MMPI, Rorschach, TAT, and Sentence Completion Test in counterbalanced order with a test-retest interval of approximately 24 hours. State and trait anxiety measures were assessed immediately prior to and immediately following each test administration. Results indicated that state anxiety measures increased significantly following administration of the more ambiguous, unstructured test stimuli, namely the Rorschach and TAT. In contrast, the more structured, direct assessment methods, namely the MMPI and Sentence Completion Test, did not induce any significant changes in state anxiety. In all cases, trait anxiety measures remained relatively stable.     

Temperament and Anxiety: The Mediating Role of Metacognition

The present study examines a simple model for the relationship between temperament, anxiety and maladaptive metacognition. A clinical sample of patients diagnosed with anxiety disorders (n?=?216) completed a set of self-reported questionnaires measuring temperament dimensions, state anxiety and metacognitions. Three temperament traits were included in the hypothesized model: emotional reactivity, perseveration and briskness. A structural equation modeling analysis supported a model in which the relationship between the three temperament traits and anxiety were fully mediated by metacognition. Dissimilar models were identified for the male and female subgroups, and also with reference to individual categories of maladaptive metacognition. The findings support the significance of metacognition as a factor influencing the temperament-anxiety relationship. Moreover, they confirm the roles both of emotional reactivity and of perseveration, being major traits related to anxiety which also turned out to be strongly associated with metacognition. In case of the models for the categories of metacognition, emotional reactivity was associated with negative beliefs, perseveration with negative and positive beliefs, while briskness predicted anxiety independently of metacognition. These results suggest the existence of more specific associations between temperament traits, anxiety, and various types of metacognition.     

Procrastination in College Students: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Anxiety

In this study, the authors examined the relationships among procrastination, efficacy expectations, anxiety, gender, and age for 141 university students. Participants were asked to think about a major project and to rate their efficacy regarding the skills needed to accomplish the project. Bivariate correlations showed that efficacy expectations and anxiety had significant, individual relationships with procrastination. When these variables were entered into a regression model, only cumulative efficacy strength was a significant predictor of procrastination. Implications for practice and research suggestions are discussed.     

Using Multiple Contexts and Retrieval Cues in Exposure-Based Therapy to Prevent Relapse in Anxiety Disorders

The benefits of exposure-based interventions for anxiety disorders are substantial but not stable for everyone, given that these interventions are often followed by relapse of symptoms. A body of research provides a background on how to add certain strategies in exposure-based therapy to prevent relapse in anxiety disorders. This review summarizes some of these strategies and provides clear-cut clinical implications. Studies that provide support for two types of strategies to prevent relapse have been reviewed—the use of multiple contexts and the use of retrieval cues. The use of multiple contexts reduces context and stimulus specificity of extinction learning during exposure, while the use of retrieval cues enhances memory (re)consolidation and retrieval after exposure. The described strategies to enhance the accessibility and therefore the retrievability of exposure-based learning to prevent relapse in anxiety disorders can be summarized as advice to conduct exposure under variable conditions. This way, the generalizability of what is learned during exposure to the patients’ daily life after treatment improves. Therefore, adding these strategies in the course of exposure-based treatment of anxiety disorders seems beneficial. However, future replications and translational studies are needed to verify ecological validity.