Self-Discrepancy Across the Life Span

This study examined the developmental trajectory of self-discrepancies in adulthood and the role of self-discrepancies in the maintenance of psychological well-being. One hundred fourteen adults completed mailed surveys that assessed physical health, actual self and ideal self, depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and self-discrepancy. Examination of age differences in actual self and ideal self assessments showed that ideal self ratings converged with actual self ratings for older adults but were significantly different for young and middle-aged adults, which indicated a decline in self-discrepancy with age. Mean scores on the self-discrepancy scale indicated less self-discrepancy in old age, but the differences were not significant. Self-discrepancy mediated the effects of health problems on depression, anxiety, self-esteem, environmental mastery, and self-acceptance. Results support life-span theory suggesting that self-discrepancy declines in old age and that this decline is positively related to psychological well-being.     

Discrepant Self-Views and Young Women's Sexual and Emotional Adjustment

Young women in the United States receive conflicting messages about being sexually moral versus sexually desirable. Drawing from self-discrepancy theory, we hypothesized that women's internalization of messages about morality and desirability influence their ought and ideal self-guides for sexuality, respectively. Further, we expected that women who viewed their actual selves as significantly less positive/more negative than their self-guides would endorse greater sexual and emotional problems. In Study 1, never-married undergraduate women (N = 242) completed measures of sexual self-views, ought self-guides, and sexual adjustment. In Study 2, another sample (N = 170) also completed measures of ideal self-guides, depression, and anxiety. Participants were predominantly Caucasian and from upper middle-class backgrounds. Both negative actual:ought and actual:ideal discrepancies were associated with poorer sexual adjustment. Negative actual:ought discrepancies were associated with anxiety but not depression, whereas negative actual:ideal discrepancies were associated with both anxiety and depression. Self-discrepancy theory is a useful framework for understanding how self-standards for sexual morality versus desirability are associated with young women's emotional and sexual adjustment.     

Self-Discrepancy and Mental Health in Older Women with Chronic Illnesses

Self-discrepancy was investigated as a self-enhancing mechanism by which older women maintain their mental health and psychological well-being while coping with declines in physical health. In this 6-year longitudinal study, the mediating and moderating effects of self-discrepancy on mental health outcomes in older women with chronic health problems were tested. Participants were 103 community-dwelling older women who completed multiple, self-report measures of physical and mental health and self-discrepancy. There was a decline in physical health over time but an improvement in self-discrepancies. Low self-discrepancy (i.e., little discrepancy between the actual and ideal self) mediated and moderated the effects of physical health decline on mental health and psychological well-being. Thus, self-discrepancy appears to play a significant role in maintaining mental health in the face of declining physical health in older women.     

Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: how magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect

Two studies examined whether the type of emotional change experienced by individuals is influenced by the magnitude and accessibility of the different types of self-discrepancies they possess. In both studies, subjects filled out a measure of self-discrepancy a few weeks prior to the experimental session. Subjects were asked to list up to 10 attributes each for different self-states--their actual self, their ideal self (their own or others' hopes and goals for them), and their ought self (their own or others' beliefs about their duty and obligations). Magnitude of self-discrepancy was calculated by comparing the attributes in the actual self to the attributes in either the ideal self or the ought self, with the total number of attribute pairs that matched being subtracted from the total number of attribute pairs that mismatched. In Study 1, subjects were asked to imagine either a positive event or a negative event and were then given a mood measure and a writing-speed task. Subjects with a predominant actual:ideal discrepancy felt more dejected (e.g., sad) and wrote more slowly in the negative event condition than in the positive event condition, whereas subjects with a predominant actual:ought discrepancy, if anything, felt more agitated (e.g., afraid) and wrote more quickly in the negative event condition. In Study 2, subjects were selected who were either high in both kinds of discrepancies or low in both. Half of the subjects in each group were asked to discuss their own and their parents' hopes and goals for them (ideal priming), and the other half were asked to discuss their own and their parents' beliefs concerning their duty and obligations (ought priming). For high-discrepancy subjects, but not low-discrepancy subjects, ideal priming increased their dejection whereas ought priming increased their agitation. The implications of these findings for identifying cognitive-motivational factors that may serve as vulnerability markers for emotional problems is discussed.     

The influence of relationship status, mate seeking, and sex on intrasexual competition

Researchers have little explored individuals' perceptions of same-sex attractiveness in terms of the influence of relationship status. By using intrasexual competition as a conceptual framework, the authors predicted that romantically involved individuals would protect their relationship by derogating competitors. Although previous researchers have strongly predicted this result, in the present study the relationship status had a negligible impact on competition, for which relationship commitment, sociosexual orientation, and self-monitoring did not account. Also, among uninvolved individuals, the authors expected those individuals seeking mates would use competitor derogation more than would those individuals not seeking mates, but there was no significant difference. Finally, because the vehicle for this investigation was attractiveness, an area in which women compete, the authors proposed that women would derogate more fiercely than would men. However, the results did not support this hypothesis either. The authors discuss future directions for research.     

The ideal elf: identity exploration in World of Warcraft.

In this study, we examine the identity exploration possibilities presented by online multiplayer games in which players use graphics tools and character-creation software to construct an avatar, or character. We predicted World of Warcraft players would create their main character more similar to their ideal self than the players themselves were. Our results support this idea; a sample of players rated their character as having more favorable attributes that were more favorable than their own self-rated attributes. This trend was stronger among those with lower psychological well-being, who rated themselves comparatively lower than they rated their character. Our results suggest that the game world allows players the freedom to create successful virtual selves regardless of the constraints of their actual situation.     

College students' self-discrepancy on the Internet, from the perspectives of desktop practices, self-control, and academic training

The self-discrepancy theory argues that perceived discrepancy between one's actual self and ideal self may induce anxiety, and that this in turn may motivate people to reduce or eliminate this perceived discrepancy by changing their behaviors. Based on this theory, this study investigated how college students perceived discrepancies between their actual and their reported ideal uses of the Internet. Their Internet use was examined on three levels: the grand level (i.e., hours spent online per week), the activity level (i.e., hours spent engaging in certain online activities per week), and the tool level (i.e., hours spent using certain Internet tools per week). Three particular factors were also selected for investigation: the participants' different desktop practices, levels of academic training, and exertions of self-control. The results indicate that the participants' perceptions of actual versus ideal discrepancies were shaped by the different levels (i.e., grand, activity, tool) of their Internet use. Additionally, this study shows that perceived self-discrepancy relating to the time that college students spend on the Internet may not be a problem in itself, but it may symbolize more profound psychological or behavioral factors that need to be addressed.     

Playing to their strengths: Can focusing on typical in-group strengths be detrimental to people of colour?

With increasing awareness about racism, portrayals of communities of colour are shifting away from negative representations. Emphasizing their strengths could counter negative stereotypes about who they are and low expectations for who they can be, but could also backfire. In two experiments centring adolescents (n = 198) and adults of colour (n = 321), the effect of reflecting on a typical strength was moderated by perceived misalignments between racial/ethnic and ideal future selves (i.e., ethnic–ideal self-discrepancy). For participants perceiving them as aligned, reflecting on a typical in-group strength reduced actual–ideal self-discrepancy. However, for participants perceiving them as misaligned, reflecting on a typical in-group strength increased actual–ideal self-discrepancy. Reflecting on a typical strength also indirectly influenced engagement, through actual–ideal self-discrepancy. Reflecting on an atypical in-group strength did not yield significant effects. Thus, emphasizing typical aspects of stigmatized communities, even when positive, sometimes impede identity and motivation.     

Possible selves in adulthood and old age: a tale of shifting horizons

Young, middle-aged, and elderly adults (N = 308) evaluated themselves on 6 dimensions of psychological well-being according to present, past, future, and ideal self-assessments. Young and middle-aged adults saw considerable improvement in themselves from the past to the present on all dimensions of well-being. The elderly, however, indicated largely a perception of stability with prior levels of functioning. Future ratings showed that the 2 younger groups expected continued gains in the years ahead, whereas the oldest respondents foresaw decline on most aspects of well-being. The comparison of present and ideal self-ratings supported (cross-sectionally) the hypothesis that with age, individuals achieve a closer fit between their ideal and their actual self-perceptions.     

Social embeddedness and psychological well-being among African Americans and whites

Using data from the National Medical Expenditure Survey, a household survey of more than 18,000 respondents, this study examined racial and gender differences in social embeddedness, an indicator of community well-being and social support. The study hypothesized that higher levels of social embeddedness would be found among African Americans than among Whites and that the association between social embeddedness and psychological well-being would be stronger among African Americans than among Whites. African American men reported themselves more socially embedded overall than White men and, in one instance, their social involvement was especially important in predicting psychological well-being. African American women were more likely than White women to report attending meetings of churches and community groups, but otherwise were less socially involved than White women. There was no evidence of a difference between African American and White women in strength of the connection between social embeddedness and psychological well-being. African American social involvement is more selective than previously believed and generalizations must be qualified on the basis of gender.     

The Mediating Role of Self-Discrepancies in the Relationship Between Media Exposure and Well-Being Among Lesbian,Gay, and Bisexual Adolescents

Extant research suggests that exposure to depictions of sexuality in the media may influence the well-being of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents. Far less is known about the underlying processes that may explain this relationship. Self-discrepancy theory was utilized to predict that relationships between media exposure and well-being among LGB adolescents would be mediated by self-discrepancies in identity. A national survey of 573 LGB adolescents revealed that exposure to gay- and lesbian-oriented media was positively related to the well-being of LGB teens. The relationship between gay- and lesbian-oriented media exposure and well-being was mediated by self-discrepancies in identity for LGB adolescents low in sexual identity commitment. This finding suggests that increased exposure to gay- and lesbian-oriented media could decrease uncommitted LGB teens' perceived differences between their actual selves and their ideal selves, which, in turn, could increase their well-being. A positive relationship between mainstream media exposure and well-being was not mediated by self-discrepancies. The discussion focuses on the role of media in the identity development and sexual socialization of LGB adolescents.     

Gender role traits among individuals with social anxiety disorder

The present study investigated differences between individuals with and without social anxiety disorder (SAD) in instrumentality and expressiveness, personality traits traditionally linked to the male and female gender roles, respectively. Based on evolutionary and self-discrepancy theories, it was hypothesized that individuals with SAD would score lower on instrumentality and report a discrepancy between their perceived and ideal level of instrumentality compared to control participants. Sixty-four patients with SAD and 31 non-anxious control participants completed a battery of questionnaires, including ratings of their perceived and ideal gender role attributes and current psychosocial distress. Results supported the hypotheses, and provided initial evidence that a discrepancy between perceived and ideal instrumentality may be linked to social anxiety severity, depression and lower quality of life. No differences were detected between groups in expressiveness. The present findings suggest that individuals with SAD perceive themselves to be deficient in instrumentality. They also suggest that increasing instrumentality among individuals with SAD may be beneficial for treatment.     

Gender Role Traits Among Individuals with Social Anxiety Disorder

The present study investigated differences between individuals with and without social anxiety disorder (SAD) in instrumentality and expressiveness, personality traits traditionally linked to the male and female gender roles, respectively. Based on evolutionary and self-discrepancy theories, it was hypothesized that individuals with SAD would score lower on instrumentality and report a discrepancy between their perceived and ideal level of instrumentality compared to control participants. Sixty-four patients with SAD and 31 non-anxious control participants completed a battery of questionnaires, including ratings of their perceived and ideal gender role attributes and current psychosocial distress. Results supported the hypotheses, and provided initial evidence that a discrepancy between perceived and ideal instrumentality may be linked to social anxiety severity, depression and lower quality of life. No differences were detected between groups in expressiveness. The present findings suggest that individuals with SAD perceive themselves to be deficient in instrumentality. They also suggest that increasing instrumentality among individuals with SAD may be beneficial for treatment.     

自我差异对消费者产品属性选择偏好的影响

自我是一个人所持有的关于自我特征的信念,不同的理想和现实自我差异可能带来不同的消费选择。本研究以在校大学生作为被试,通过阅读不同的理想与现实自我材料,启动被试的理想与现实的自我差异,考察其对消费者产品属性选择偏好的影响。结果发现：现实与理想自我差异小的被试,更偏好享乐属性强的产品;现实与理想自我差异大的被试,更偏好功能属性强的产品。     

Romantic relationship status biases memory of faces of attractive opposite-sex others: evidence from a reverse-correlation paradigm

Previous research has demonstrated that, presumably as a way to protect one’s current romantic relationship, individuals involved in a heterosexual romantic relationship tend to give lower attractiveness ratings to attractive opposite-sex others as compared to uninvolved individuals (i.e., the derogation effect). The present study importantly extends this research by examining whether romantic relationship status actually biases memory for the facial appearance of attractive (vs. unattractive) mates. To address this issue, we used a reverse-correlation technique (Mangini & Biederman, 2004), originally developed to get a visual approximation of an individual’s internal representation of a target category or person. In line with the derogation effect, results demonstrated that romantically involved (vs. uninvolved) individuals indeed held a less attractive memory of a previously encountered attractive mate’s face. Interestingly, they also held a more attractive memory of an unattractive mate’s face as compared to uninvolved individuals. This latter finding may suggest that romantically involved (as compared to uninvolved) individuals differentiate opposite-sex others along the attractiveness dimension less.     

Maternal Guilt and Shame: The Role of Self-discrepancy and Fear of Negative Evaluation

Guilt and shame are emotions commonly associated with motherhood. Self-discrepancy theory proposes that guilt and shame result from perceived discrepancies between one’s actual and ideal selves. Fear of negative evaluation by others may enhance the effects of self-discrepancy especially for shame, which involves fear of others’ reproach. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between self discrepancy, guilt, shame, and fear of negative evaluation in a cross-sectional, self report study of mothers. Mothers of children five and under (N = 181) completed an on-line survey measuring guilt, shame, fear of negative evaluation, and maternal self-discrepancies. Guilt and shame were related to maternal self-discrepancy and fear of negative evaluation. In addition, fear of negative evaluation moderated the relationship between maternal self-discrepancy and shame such that mothers who greatly feared negative evaluation had a very strong relationship between these variables. Maternal self-discrepancy and shame were not related among mothers who had low fear of negative evaluation. The results are discussed in terms of the detrimental effects of internalizing idealized standards of perfect motherhood.     

Romantic relationship status biases the processing of an attractive alternative's behavior

The present research examines whether romantically involved individuals process behavioral information of attractive alternatives in a biased manner. When presented with behavioral information of an attractive mate, in Study 1 involved (vs. uninvolved) participants tended to recall fewer positive behaviors of an attractive alternative. Study 2 demonstrated that involved participants recalled more negative behaviors, and also evaluated these behaviors more negatively, compared to uninvolved participants. Study 3 demonstrated that romantically involved participants recalled more negative (but also neutral) behaviors when it concerned behaviors displayed by an attractive alternative as compared to a same‐sex other. These findings provide initial evidence for biased processing of behavioral information of an alternative mate, which may serve an important relationship protection function.     

Self-prospection and energization: The joint influence of time distance and consideration of future consequences

The way people envision their future (self-prospection) plays a key role in the energization required to pursue desired goals. We proposed that energization is determined by time distance from the imagined future-self and the individual’s consideration of future consequences (CFC). We hypothesized that, when imagining their distant (vs. near) future-self, individuals higher on CFC (i.e., those who construe a stronger link between present and future selves), would report greater energization. Participants completed the CFC scale, imagined their distant or near future-self, and reported their energy level. Imagining distant (vs. near) future-self fostered energy among participants higher on CFC (Experiments 1–2), an effect mediated by vividness of self-representations (Experiment 2). Self-prospection has implications for current states, and specifically for felt energy.     

Type A behavior, age, and psychological well-being

We investigated psychological well-being among Type A and B individuals across the age span. We hypothesized that the hard-driving, achievement-oriented lifestyle exhibited by Type As would be adaptive in younger age groups, but would lead to lower well-being in later life because of increased limitations on the range and level of one's activities. By contrast, the more relaxed, easygoing style of the Type B matches better the slower pace of old age, but is not as conducive to success in younger age groups. Thus we expected older Type Bs more than younger Type Bs to exhibit greater well-being. Results confirmed these hypotheses, but indicated that psychological differences may be mediated in part by differences in physical well-being. Furthermore, experience with life events, and the structure and function of social networks, may contribute to the differences in well-being.