Self-help conferences for people who stutter: a qualitative investigation

Self-help activities for people who stutter (PWS) have been gaining in popularity; however, there is a scarcity of evidence to support their utility in stuttering management. The purpose of this investigation was to understand the lived experience of individuals who attended a self-help conference(s) for PWS from the perspective of a PWS to learn its potential utility in stuttering management. The investigator used Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to systematically collect authentic data of this social phenomenon. Twelve participants were recruited from a self-help conference and the self-help community of PWS. Semi-structured interviews were conducted 4–18 months after each participant's last conference. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed. Themes were explained in investigator narratives and illustrated through participants’ quotes. Interpreted themes of the experience of having attended a self-help conference(s) for PWS included: socializing opportunities with other PWS, affiliation, redefining oneself and post-conference disclosures. A conclusion of the study was that the experience of having attended a self-help conference(s) for PWS helped to minimize negative impact that stuttering can have on daily functioning. It appears that self-help conferences were perceived as a safer or “stutter-friendly” environment and promoted social interaction, relationship building, and community building through planned and unplanned activities. Another conclusion was that the experience of having attended self-help conferences for PWS helped participants to communicate more easily. Reported increases in social activity and an “openness” about stuttering, suggest self-help conferences’ utility in stuttering management. These findings are supported by other studies about successful stuttering management and self-help activities for PWS. They have helped attendees who stutter to communicate more easily and suggest a reduction in the negative impact that stuttering has on their lives.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (1) describe recurring themes associated with the lived experience having attended a self-help conference(s) for people who stutter (PWS) from the perspective of a group of adults who stutter, and (2) describe the potential benefits of attending self-help conferences for PWS in order to make appropriate evidence-based referrals to self-help conferences for PWS.     

Effects of stuttering severity and therapy involvement on attitudes towards people who stutter

The purpose of this study was to explore whether stuttering severity or therapy involvement had an effect on the attitudes that individuals who do not stutter reported towards people who stutter (PWS). Two hundred and sixty (260) university students participated in this study. Direct survey procedures consisting of a 25-item semantic differential scale were utilized. Comparisons of the effects of stuttering severity, level of therapy involvement, and the interaction of these variables were completed. Results suggested that both stuttering severity and therapy involvement had significant effects on participants' attitudes towards PWS. Findings of this study support past research studies that has found that individuals who stutter mildly are perceived more positively than those who are severe. Similarly, the data supported past research that has found that PWS that attend therapy are perceived more positively than those who do not attend therapy. Surprisingly, the interaction of these variables was not significant. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will be able to: (1) explain the possible effects of listeners' attitudes toward stuttering on the lives of PWS; (2) discuss how different factors might alter listeners' attitudes towards stuttering; (3) delineate how stuttering severity and involvement in therapy might impact listeners' attitudes towards PWS.     

The impact of threat and cognitive stress on speech motor control in people who stutter

PurposeIn the present study, an Emotional Stroop and Classical Stroop task were used to separate the effect of threat content and cognitive stress from the phonetic features of words on motor preparation and execution processes.MethodA group of 10 people who stutter (PWS) and 10 matched people who do not stutter (PNS) repeated colour names for threat content words and neutral words, as well as for traditional Stroop stimuli. Data collection included speech acoustics and movement data from upper lip and lower lip using 3D EMA.ResultsPWS in both tasks were slower to respond and showed smaller upper lip movement ranges than PNS. For the Emotional Stroop task only, PWS were found to show larger inter-lip phase differences compared to PNS. General threat words were executed with faster lower lip movements (larger range and shorter duration) in both groups, but only PWS showed a change in upper lip movements. For stutter specific threat words, both groups showed a more variable lip coordination pattern, but only PWS showed a delay in reaction time compared to neutral words. Individual stuttered words showed no effects. Both groups showed a classical Stroop interference effect in reaction time but no changes in motor variables.ConclusionThis study shows differential motor responses in PWS compared to controls for specific threat words. Cognitive stress was not found to affect stuttering individuals differently than controls or that its impact spreads to motor execution processes.Educational objectives: After reading this article, the reader will be able to: (1) discuss the importance of understanding how threat content influences speech motor control in people who stutter and non-stuttering speakers; (2) discuss the need to use tasks like the Emotional Stroop and Regular Stroop to separate phonetic (word-bound) based impact on fluency from other factors in people who stutter; and (3) describe the role of anxiety and cognitive stress on speech motor processes.     

Beliefs of teachers versus non-teachers about people who stutter

PurposeAlthough prior research has investigated teachers’ beliefs about people who stutter (PWS), this work has not indicated how these beliefs compare with those of the general public or taken into account key demographic variables that may be related to these beliefs. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate whether beliefs about PWS in teachers are different from those in the general public. The second purpose of this study was to examine whether gender is related to beliefs about PWS for teachers, who are more frequently women.MethodsAnalyses were based on questionnaire responses regarding beliefs about PWS from 269 teachers and 1388 non-teachers in the United States. Due to their potential link to beliefs about PWS, familiarity with PWS and sociodemographic variables were included in the statistical model for this study.ResultsTeachers’ beliefs about PWS are no different than those of people in non-teaching professions. Findings also indicated that, regardless of whether respondents were teachers, women had more accurate beliefs about PWS than men. The statistical model tested indicated that beliefs about PWS were more accurate when the respondents were older, had more education, and had familiarity with a PWS.ConclusionIn the first study to compare teachers’ beliefs about PWS to the general public, findings indicated that teachers are no more accurate than the public in their beliefs about PWS. Associations found between these beliefs and several variables may indicate some promising mechanisms for improving beliefs, such as increased familiarity with individuals who stutter.Educational Objectives: Readers should be able to: (a) describe stuttering's potential effects on children's participation in the school setting; (b) identify actions teachers can take to improve the school experience of their students who stutter; (c) summarize findings regarding teachers’ beliefs about people who stutter (PWS); (d) identify key variables that are associated with beliefs about PWS.     

Technology and the evolution of clinical methods for stuttering

The World Wide Web (WWW) was 20 years old last year. Enormous amounts of information about stuttering are now available to anyone who can access the Internet. Compared to 20 years ago, people who stutter and their families can now make more informed choices about speech-language interventions, from a distance. Blogs and chat rooms provide opportunities for people who stutter to share their experiences from a distance and to support one another. New technologies are also being adopted into speech-language pathology practice and service delivery. Telehealth is an exciting development as it means that treatment can now be made available to many rural and remotely located people who previously did not have access to it. Possible future technological developments for speech-language pathology practice include Internet based treatments and the use of Virtual Reality. Having speech and CBT treatments for stuttering available on the Internet would greatly increase their accessibility. Second Life also has exciting possibilities for people who stutter.Educational objectives: The reader will (1) explain how people who stutter and their families can get information about stuttering from the World Wide Web, (2) discuss how new technologies have been applied in speech-language pathology practice, and (3) summarize the principles and practice of telehealth delivery of services for people who stutter and their families.     

National Stuttering Association members' opinions about stuttering treatment

As stuttering support groups, such as the National Stuttering Association (NSA), have gained prominence and visibility, it has become increasingly important for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) to learn about the people who participate in such groups. This article presents results of a brief survey completed by 200 members of the NSA to examine the opinions of support group members regarding the field of speech-language pathology and stuttering treatment options. Results indicate that NSA members hold a variety of opinions, both positive and negative, about the resources available to them. Findings highlight a number of ways in which SLPs can work with stuttering support groups, both to learn more about the needs of people who stutter and also to provide needed information about treatment options that are available for people who stutter. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will learn about and be able to describe (1) the role of support groups in stuttering treatment; (2) the people who are members of the NSA; and (3) their opinions about various issues related to stuttering and its treatment.     

Self-acceptance,resilience, coping and satisfaction of life in people who stutter

PurposeThe purpose of the present study was to evaluate self-acceptance and satisfaction with life with people who stutter and the influence of coping and resilience on the two factors.MethodForty-seven people who stutter (PWS) and 47 people who do not stutter (PWNS) participated in an online survey. Participants completed a survey assessing 6 main areas: (a) background information, (b) satisfaction with life, (c) coping, (d) avoidance, (e) self-acceptance, and resilience.ResultsAvoidant coping and maladaptive coping moderated the association between stuttering and self- acceptance but not satisfaction with life. Resilience was found to moderate the association between stuttering and self-acceptance as well as satisfaction with life.ConclusionStuttering was associated with lower self-acceptance at higher levels of avoidant coping and maladaptive coping. PWS who have lower levels of resilience were more likely to have a lower satisfaction with life indicating that higher levels of resilience could serve as a protective factor for having a greater satisfaction with life. Further, stuttering was associated with lower self-acceptance at lower levels of resilient attitude. Resilience and coping appear to protect against having diminished self-acceptance and satisfaction with life for PWS.     

“Openness and progress with communication and confidence have all gone hand in hand”: Reflections on the experience of transitioning between concealment and openness among adults who stutter

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the experience of people who stutter as they navigate through the growth process from concealment to openness.MethodTwelve adults who stutter who are active in self-help/support groups for stuttering described their experiences of concealment and openness in a semi-structured interview. Purposeful selection was utilized to recruit participants who could comment thoughtfully on previous concealing, but became more open about their stuttering. A phenomenological approach was utilized to gain a deeper understanding of how people who stutter experience the transition from concealment to openness regarding their stuttering and identity. Thematic analysis contributed to identification of themes and subthemes describing participants’ experiences.ResultsParticipants described precursors to concealment that led to hiding and avoidance, which grew in strength until they reached a turning point. They then changed how they related to their stuttering by changing their behaviors and perceptions of stuttering, which led to increased openness about their identity. This process of continued adaptation to stuttering was ongoing and non-linear, but suggested general trends from concealment to more openness over time. Level of openness was impacted by situational context and individual differences.ConclusionsThe findings extend our understanding of how people who stutter navigate transitions from concealment to openness. This deeper understanding could be helpful in explaining the complexities involved in managing the identity of a person who stutters, and the process of adapting to living with stuttering over time.     

The influence of workplace discrimination and vigilance on job satisfaction with people who stutter

Purpose The purpose of the present study is to examine the association between workplace discrimination, vigilance, and job satisfaction in people who stutter and compare this with people who do not stutter. Method Seventy-two people who stutter (PWS) and 92 people who do not stutter (PWNS) participated in an online survey. Participants completed a survey assessing 6 different areas: (a) background information, (b) job satisfaction, (c) everyday discrimination, and (d) heightened vigilance. Mediation analyses were conducted to evaluate the relationship between the independent variables and dependent variable. Results There was a relationship between being a PWS and job satisfaction, discrimination, and vigilance. PWS were found to experience higher discrimination as well as be more vigilant. Discrimination and vigilance were found to mediate the relationship between stuttering and job satisfaction. Conclusion Results of this study indicate that the participants who stutter differ from PWNS in their job satisfaction, discrimination, and vigilance. Clinicians can prepare PWS with self-advocacy strategies, legal knowledge of what their rights are as an employee who identifies as a person who stutters with a disability, a legal understanding of workplace discrimination, and counseling on the impact of vigilance on workplace experiences.     

Associations between beliefs about and reactions toward people who stutter

PurposeThis study sought to assess whether beliefs about people who stutter (PWS) predict intended behavioral and affective reactions toward them in a large and varied sample of respondents while taking into account familiarity with PWS and the demographic variables of age, education, and gender.MethodsAnalyses were based on 2206 residents of the United States of America. The seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) technique was used to test the relationship between beliefs about PWS and behavioral and affective reactions toward PWS. Variables such as familiarity with PWS and demographic data were also controlled in the statistical model.ResultsFindings indicated that, when demographic variables and familiarity were taken into account, the accuracy of participants’ beliefs about PWS significantly predicted their intended behavioral and affective reactions toward PWS. The participants’ gender and familiarity with PWS were also associated with these reactions toward PWS.ConclusionThe finding of an association between beliefs and intended reactions validates attempts to improve public treatment of PWS through improving the accuracy of beliefs about PWS. Additionally, because familiarity with PWS is a significant predictor of helpful and positive reactions toward PWS, interventions involving PWS educating others through direct interpersonal interactions may be one effective way to improve public reactions toward individuals who stutter.     

Enfin,a podcast in French on stuttering! — "Je je je suis un podcast": Impacts of accessing stuttering-related information in one’s mother tongue

PurposeEnglish-language podcasts on stuttering are numerous. However, stuttering-related podcasts in French are far more rare. In order to create a space to explore stuttering for a French-speaking population, the Association bégaiement communication (ABC), a French-Canadian stuttering organization, produced “Je je je suis un podcast”. This study seeks to understand 1) how French, as the language of the podcast, has impacted accessibility to stuttering-related information in the Francophone stuttering community, and 2) how this information impacted listeners’ experience with stuttering.MethodAn anonymous online survey which included multiple choice, Likert scale and open-ended questions was conducted to better understand the impact, among listeners, of having access to a stuttering-related podcast in French. Answers were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively.ResultsEighty-seven people (40 people who stutter [PWS], 39 speech-language pathologists [SLP]/SLP students, eight parents/close persons to a person who stutters), who had listened to “Je je je suis un podcast” participated in the survey. All three populations reported a greater accessibility, and a sense of identification and connection facilitated because of French. SLPs reported seeing the podcast as a way to support their practice, to gain perspective from PWS, and as a lever for change in the SLP field. PWS reported that the podcast gives them a sense of belonging that encourages involvement, as well as knowledge that empowers and supports them in managing their stuttering.Conclusion“Je je je suis un podcast” is a podcast about stuttering produced in French that increases accessibility to stuttering-related information and empowers PWS and SLPs.     

Reprint of: technology and the evolution of clinical methods for stuttering

The World Wide Web (WWW) was 20 years old last year. Enormous amounts of information about stuttering are now available to anyone who can access the Internet. Compared to 20 years ago, people who stutter and their families can now make more informed choices about speech-language interventions, from a distance. Blogs and chat rooms provide opportunities for people who stutter to share their experiences from a distance and to support one another. New technologies are also being adopted into speech-language pathology practice and service delivery. Telehealth is an exciting development as it means that treatment can now be made available to many rural and remotely located people who previously did not have access to it. Possible future technological developments for speech-language pathology practice include Internet based treatments and the use of Virtual Reality. Having speech and CBT treatments for stuttering available on the Internet would greatly increase their accessibility. Second Life also has exciting possibilities for people who stutter.Educational objectives: The reader will (1) explain how people who stutter and their families can get information about stuttering from the World Wide Web, (2) discuss how new technologies have been applied in speech-language pathology practice, and (3) summarize the principles and practice of telehealth delivery of services for people who stutter and their families.     

Investigating speech motor practice and learning in people who stutter

In this exploratory study, we investigated whether or not people who stutter (PWS) show motor practice and learning changes similar to those of people who do not stutter (PNS). To this end, five PWS and five PNS repeated a set of non-words at two different rates (normal and fast) across three test sessions (T1, T2 on the same day and T3 on a separate day, at least 1 week apart). The results indicated that PWS and PNS may resemble each other on a number of performance variables (such as movement amplitude and duration), but they differ in terms of practice and learning on variables that relate to movement stability and strength of coordination patterns. These findings are interpreted in support of recent claims about speech motor skill limitations in PWS.

Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (1) define oral articulatory changes associated with motor practice and learning and their measurement; (2) summarize findings from previous studies examining motor practice and learning in PWS; and (3) discuss hypotheses that could account for the present findings that suggest PWS and PNS differ in their speech motor learning abilities.     

Psychological characteristics and perceptions of stuttering of adults who stutter with and without support group experience

Purpose

To compare adults who stutter with and without support group experience on measures of self-esteem, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, self-stigma, perceived stuttering severity, perceived origin and future course of stuttering, and importance of fluency.

Method

Participants were 279 adults who stutter recruited from the National Stuttering Association and Board Recognized Specialists in Fluency Disorders. Participants completed a Web-based survey comprised of various measures of well-being including the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale, a measure of perceived stuttering severity, the Self-Stigma of Stuttering Scale, and other stuttering-related questions.

Results

Participants with support group experience as a whole demonstrated lower internalized stigma, were more likely to believe that they would stutter for the rest of their lives, and less likely to perceive production of fluent speech as being highly or moderately important when talking to other people, compared to participants with no support group experience. Individuals who joined support groups to help others feel better about themselves reported higher self-esteem, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction, and lower internalized stigma and perceived stuttering severity, compared to participants with no support group experience. Participants who stutter as an overall group demonstrated similar levels of self-esteem, higher self-efficacy, and lower life satisfaction compared to averages from normative data for adults who do not stutter.

Conclusions

Findings support the notion that self-help support groups limit internalization of negative attitudes about the self, and that focusing on helping others feel better in a support group context is linked to higher levels of psychological well-being.Educational objectives: At the end of this activity the reader will be able to: (a) describe the potential psychological benefits of stuttering self-help support groups for people who stutter, (b) contrast between important aspects of well-being including self-esteem self-efficacy, and life satisfaction, (c) summarize differences in self-esteem, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, self-stigma, perceived stuttering severity, and perceptions of stuttering between adults who stutter with and without support group experience, (d) summarize differences in self-esteem, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction between adults who stutter and normative data for adults who do not stutter.     

Anxiety and speaking in people who stutter: An investigation using the emotional Stroop task

People with anxiety disorders show an attentional bias towards threat or negative emotion words. This exploratory study examined whether people who stutter (PWS), who can be anxious when speaking, show similar bias and whether reactions to threat words also influence speech motor planning and execution. Comparisons were made between 31 PWS and 31 fluent controls in a modified emotional Stroop task where, depending on a visual cue, participants named the colour of threat and neutral words at either a normal or fast articulation rate. In a manual version of the same task participants pressed the corresponding colour button with either a long or short duration. PWS but not controls were slower to respond to threat words than neutral words, however, this emotionality effect was only evident for verbal responding. Emotionality did not interact with speech rate, but the size of the emotionality effect among PWS did correlate with frequency of stuttering. Results suggest PWS show an attentional bias to threat words similar to that found in people with anxiety disorder. In addition, this bias appears to be contingent on engaging the speech production system as a response modality. No evidence was found to indicate that emotional reactivity during the Stroop task constrains or destabilises, perhaps via arousal mechanisms, speech motor adjustment or execution for PWS.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (1) explain the importance of cognitive aspects of anxiety, such as attentional biases, in the possible cause and/or maintenance of anxiety in people who stutter, (2) explain how the emotional Stroop task can be used as a measure of attentional bias to threat information, and (3) evaluate the findings with respect to the relationship between attentional bias to threat information and speech production in people who stutter.     

Speeded verbal responding in adults who stutter: are there deficits in linguistic encoding?

Linguistic encoding deficits in people who stutter (PWS, n=18) were investigated using auditory priming during picture naming and word vs. non-word comparisons during choice and simple verbal reaction time (RT) tasks. During picture naming, PWS did not differ significantly from normally fluent speakers (n=18) in the magnitude of inhibition of RT from semantically related primes and the magnitude of facilitation from phonologically related primes. PWS also did not differ from controls in the degree to which words were faster than non-words during choice RT, although PWS were slower overall than controls. Simple RT showed no difference between groups, or between words and non-words, suggesting differences in speech initiation time do not explain the choice RT results. The findings are consistent with PWS not being deficient in the time course of lexical activation and selection, phonological encoding, and phonetic encoding. Potential deficits underlying slow choice RTs outside of linguistic encoding are discussed. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will be able to (1) describe possible relationships between linguistic encoding processes and speech motor control difficulties in people who stutter; (2) explain the role of lexical priming tasks during speech production in evaluating the efficiency of linguistic encoding; (3) describe the different levels of processing that may be involved in slow verbal responding by people who stutter, and identify which levels could be involved based on the findings of the present study.     

The speech naturalness of people who stutter speaking under delayed auditory feedback as perceived by different groups of listeners

This study investigated listeners' perception of the speech naturalness of people who stutter (PWS) speaking under delayed auditory feedback (DAF) with particular attention for possible listener differences. Three panels of judges consisting of 14 stuttering individuals, 14 speech language pathologists, and 14 naive listeners rated the naturalness of speech samples of stuttering and non-stuttering individuals using a 9-point interval scale. Results clearly indicate that these three groups evaluate naturalness differently. Naive listeners appear to be more severe in their judgements than speech language pathologists and stuttering listeners, and speech language pathologists are apparently more severe than PWS. The three listener groups showed similar trends with respect to the relationship between speech naturalness and speech rate. Results of all three indicated that for PWS, the slower a speaker's rate was, the less natural speech was judged to sound. The three listener groups also showed similar trends with regard to naturalness of the stuttering versus the non-stuttering individuals. All three panels considered the speech of the non-stuttering participants more natural. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will be able to: (1) discuss the speech naturalness of people who stutter speaking under delayed auditory feedback, (2) discuss listener differences about the naturalness of people who stutter speaking under delayed auditory feedback, and (3) discuss the importance of speech rate for the naturalness of speech.     

Life partners’ perceptions of the emotional,speech disruptive,and attitudinal correlates of stuttering

PurposeThe purpose of the current investigation was to explore the extent to which the life partners (LPs) of people who stutter (PWS) perceive their loved ones’ speech-situation specific emotional reaction, expectancy of speech disruption, and speech-related communication attitude.MethodsThree subtests of the Behavior Assessment Battery (BAB): the Speech Situation Checklist - Emotional Reaction (SSC-ER), the Speech Situation Checklist - Speech Disruption (SSC-SD) and the Communication Attitude Test for Adults Who Stutter (BigCAT) were administered to 33 PWS and modified versions were administered to their LPs via Qualtrics Survey Software. Effect of relationship duration on subtest scores was considered. Perceived stuttering severity by the participant and their LP was also queried as part of a demographic questionnaire.ResultsPWS and their LPs rated BigCAT items in a similar way, while they rated certain SSC-ER and SSC-SD items differently. Importantly, between-group agreement was not affected by relationship duration. Among the PWS and LP, perceived stuttering severity influenced all BAB subtest scores.ConclusionLPs of PWS appear to be in tune with the cognitive aspects of their partner’s experience of stuttering. This has important clinical implications as it relates to active involvement of the family in speech intervention targeting fluency.     

Toward a better understanding of the process of disclosure events among people who stutter

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to identify components of disclosure events among people who stutter, and identify possible relations between these components in order to understand how disclosure events unfold.MethodTwelve adults who stutter participated in semi-structured interviews focused on disclosure of stuttering. Participants were purposefully selected due to their self-reported history of disclosing stuttering. Qualitative content analysis using a grounded theory approach helped to identify relevant themes and subthemes related to the process of disclosure of stuttering.ResultsThe findings describe the complex process of disclosure as being comprised of antecedents (including considerations about when and why to disclose), the disclosure event itself (including the content and form of the disclosure, most and least helpful methods of disclosure, as well as immediate listener reactions), and the perceived outcomes of the disclosure at individual, dyadic, and societal/contextual levels. These components of the process are linked and affect one another, resulting in a feedback loop. Disclosure methods are context-dependent and not mutually exclusive within individuals who stutter.ConclusionProfessionals and advocates gaining a more nuanced understanding of the process of disclosure events can increase their ability to help people who stutter make optimal decisions about disclosure. Making good disclosure decisions can help PWS improve their quality of life and reduce a variety of environmental communicative barriers.     

Recurrent involuntary imagery in people who stutter and people who do not stutter

Objective

To compare intrusive memories in groups of people who do (PWS), and who do not (PWNS), stutter.

Method

Twenty-one participants who stuttered and 21 matched controls were given a semi-structured interview which explored imagery in speaking situations. The data were analyzed using a Content Analysis approach. Other outcome measures were the Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD, Symptom Scale: Self-Report Version.

Results

Significantly more stuttering participants than control participants indicated both recurrent imagery and associated memories. Content Analysis revealed themes of disfluency, anxiety, negative social evaluation, self-focus and pressure to speak that were common to both groups’ reports. Additional themes of helplessness, shame, sadness and frustration were found only in the images and memories of the stuttering group. No group differences were evident for the number of sensory modalities involved in images and memories, or for ratings of their vividness or strength of associated emotions, or on self-reports of depression, anxiety and trauma.

Conclusions

Recurrent imagery about events in childhood is a potent factor in the memories of PWS. It is worth modifying interventions that have been successfully applied for treating social anxiety for use with people who stutter.Educational objectives: After reading this article, participants will be able to: (a) identify the role of intrusive memories in psychiatric disorders and stuttering; (b) investigate how DSM criteria can be employed with people who stutter; (c) employ anxiety instruments used for assessing psychiatric disorders for stuttering; (d) distinguish between the intrusive memories experienced by people who stutter, and people who do not stutter; (e) apply treatments for intrusive memories in psychiatric disorders to work with people who stutter.