有效测量元认知监控的新方法：Mastermind任务分析

元认知监控是元认知的核心成分,而且是内隐程度较高的心理活动。研究采用认知操作法,对经典的Mastermind游戏任务加以改编,结合访谈分析,探讨了适合考察元认知监控的任务难度和有效的元认知监控指标。研究结果发现：（1）对于大学生来说,在游戏4（要求从六种颜色中选出四种正确的颜色,且排列位置也要正确）中当知觉难度最大且又可以经过努力选择策略、根据反馈进行有效选择时,才会在最大程度上激发元认知监控,使得游戏成绩提高;（2）“监测时间”是元认知监测的有效测量指标,而“违背反馈次数”是元认知控制的有效测量指标。     

High School and Employment Agency Client Views on Career Counseling

Individual interviews of Improved Career Decision Making (ICDM) workshop-trained counselors and focus-group interviews of 41 clients in high schools and state employment agencies in 3 states resulted in findings that may have significance for ICDM training, counselor education programs, and effective delivery of career counseling services to clients. An important emerging concept relates to the notion that exposure to strategies derived from career decision-making models alone will not ensure effective client career decisions. A major implication for counselor training and practice is the need to emphasize metacognitive processing of knowledge and skills (gained from experiential activities) by clients so that they will be motivated to effectively plan for careers.     

Task performance and metacognitive experiences in problem-solving

The effects of task performance on metacognitive experiences and relations between task performance and metacognitive experiences in problem-solving were examined with 69 Japanese undergraduate students. The task was a puzzle called the cross breaker, consisting of seven pieces, and several figures were constructed by using those seven pieces. Eight types of metacognitive experiences, before and after performing the task, were rated. Participants were classified into Success and Failure groups based on their task performance. Use of all but two metacognitive experiences differed between the groups. There were medium to high positive and negative correlations for metacognitive experiences with performance after the puzzle task, whereas metacognitive experiences before the task generally had no significant correlations with performance. Despite small N, participants' metacognitive experiences seemed to reflect their actual performance, suggesting that people obtain information from their performance and use it to revise their metacognitive experiences. Furthermore, metacognitive experiences may help people solve similar problems in the future.     

Improving lecture comprehension: Effects of a metacognitive strategy

In previous research self-questioning strategies have been found to significantly improve reading comprehension, presumably because of the metacognitive nature of the self-questioning process. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether this metacognitive strategy also enhances lecture comprehension, that is, comprehension of non-text, orally presented material. In a self-questioning combined with reciprocal peer-questioning condition, ninthgraders were trained to pose questions for themselves during classroom lectures; following the lectures, they used their questions to engage in reciprocal peer-questioning and responding. Students in a self-questioning only condition also engaged in self-questioning during the lectures and then answered their own questions; in a review condition, students discussed the lecture material in small cooperative groups; and in a control group students reviewed the lecture material independently. On post-practice and 10-day maintenance tests participants in the self-questioning with reciprocal peer-questioning and the self-questioning only strategy groups showed lecture comprehension superior to that of participants in both the discussion review and control groups. These results suggest that: use of a self-questioning strategy can improve high school students' comprehension of lectures; students can maintain this strategy when external prompts are removed; and this metacognitive strategy can be readily taught to high school students and incorporated into their real-world classroom learning environment.     

Thoughts on Thinking: Engaging Novice Music Students in Metacognition

Achieving expertise in any area requires extensive practice and engagement with the subject one desires to master. As not all practice yields good progress, methods must be found that lead learners to practice effectively. Many experts employ highly tailored practice involving metacognitive processes, but novices rarely engage in frequent and explicit metacognitive strategies during practice. As a result, novice progress may be impeded through repetition of systematic errors and ineffective techniques. Our study provides evidence of the effectiveness of teaching metacognition to novice music students through weekly lessons. Thirty‐five adolescent students of six instructors were randomly assigned to metacognitive focus or existing practice teaching conditions. Students receiving metacognitive teaching achieved higher performance ratings when compared with students receiving control instruction, even though practice time did not vary between groups. These results suggest that having students explicitly verbalize and reflect on their learning process produces more efficient practice and greater end performance. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

小学高年级学生元认知监测对认知操作输出的影响:执行功能的调节作用

研究采用经典的执行功能测验-威斯康星卡片分类任务,通过自由报告法让被试对每次分类反应进行元认知监测、控制,以探讨小学五、六年级学生元认知控制、执行功能在元认知监测对认知操作输出（奖惩分数、正确应答比例提高指标）影响中的调节作用。研究结果发现：（1）执行功能指标中完成分类数、错误分类数、非持续性错误数、持续性错误数指标在元认知监测与正确应答比例提高之间的调节作用显著;（2）元认知监测在较低的执行功能水平上具有促进作用,即,当执行功能水平较低时,有效的元认知监测可以提高认知操作的输出成绩。研究结果支持元认知监控是与动机有关的、有意识的调节控制,为从理论上厘清元认知监控与执行功能的关系提供了实证支持。     

Fostering networking behavior,career planning and optimism,and subjective career success: An intervention study

The present study evaluated personal resource-oriented interventions supporting the career development of young academics, working at German universities within the STEM fields. The study sought to foster subjective career success by improving networking behavior, career planning, and career optimism. The study involved a quasi-experimental pre-post intervention with two intervention and two control groups (N = 81 research associates). Participants of the first intervention group received networking training; participants of the second intervention group received the same networking training plus individual career coaching. Participants of both intervention groups were female. Participants of the control groups (i.e., male vs. female group) did not participate in any intervention. As expected, path analyses, based on mean differences from pre-test to post-test, revealed an increase in career planning and career optimism within the networking plus career coaching intervention group, that was indirectly positively related to changes in subjective career success. Contrary to our expectations, the networking group training alone and in combination with the career coaching showed no effectiveness in fostering networking behavior. Results are discussed in the context of career counseling and intervention effectiveness studies.     

Effects of three methods of career counselling on vocational maturity and vocational preference

Three types of career counselling — Individual Career Counselling, the Vocational Exploration Group, and the Future Group — were compared to a placebo group and a no-treatment control group. All groups were evaluated in terms of changes in pre- and post-test scores on the Attitude scale of Crites' Career Maturity Inventory and on the ten scales of the Kuder Preference Record. The study showed the Future Group as compared to the no-treatment control to have a significant increase on the Musical Preference scale. The Future Group also had a significant increase on the Literary Preference scale as compared to the no-treatment control and individual counselling groups. The Future Group participants significantly increased in career maturity compared to participants from the no-treatment control and individual career counselling groups. The implications for career counselling as well as for additional research investigations are discussed.     

元认知监测与算术知识制约小学儿童心算策略运用能力的发展:一年纵向考察

为探究元认知监测与算术知识对儿童心算策略运用能力的影响如何随个体发展而变化，采用计算机任务与纸笔测量的方法，对85名小学三、五年级儿童进行了历时一年的纵向追踪研究。研究发现：（1）两组儿童的元认知监测和算术知识均呈增长趋势，算术知识的增长速度五年级显著快于三年级，且元认知监测增长速度与算术知识增长速度显著相关；（2）两组儿童中，元认知监测与算术知识增长速度更快的个体策略执行反应时与错误率的减少速度也更快；（3）五年级儿童的算术知识在元认知监测影响策略选择发展中起着完全中介作用。     

元认知监控的机制:认知灵活性的调节作用

元认知监控作为元认知的核心成分,是内隐程度较高的心理活动。研究采用认知操作法,以MasterMind游戏任务为载体,从执行功能中认知灵活性的角度,探讨了元认知监控的内部机制。结果发现:元认知监测对元认知控制的作用受到认知灵活性的调节作用。对于高认知灵活性的学生,元认知监测水平越高,元认知控制越好;对于低认知灵活性的学生,元认知监测水平的高低不会引起元认知控制水平的显著变化。研究结果表明,高认知灵活性的学生能根据元认知监测进行有效元认知控制,而低认知灵活性的学生其元认知监测水平的提高没有影响元认知控制。结合元认知监控与执行功能进行了讨论。     

A Qualitative Approach to Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) Training Development: Identification of Metacognitive Strategies

Although Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) training is common in the sciences, the effectiveness of RCR training is open to question. Three key factors appear to be particularly important in ensuring the effectiveness of ethics education programs: (1) educational efforts should be tied to day-to-day practices in the field, (2) educational efforts should provide strategies for working through the ethical problems people are likely to encounter in day-to-day practice, and (3) educational efforts should be embedded in a broader program of on-going career development efforts. This article discusses a complex qualitative approach to RCR training development, based on a sensemaking model, which strives to address the afore-mentioned training concerns. Ethnographic observations and prior RCR training served the purpose of collecting information specific to a multi-disciplinary and multi-university research center with the goal of identifying metacognitive reasoning strategies that would facilitate ethical decision-making. The extensive qualitative analyses resulted in the identification of nine metacognitive reasoning strategies on which future RCR training will be developed. The implications of the findings for RCR training in the sciences are discussed.     

The relation between task-relatedness of anxiety and metacognitive performance

It is well established that anxiety influences a range of cognitive processes such as cognitive control or decision-making. What is less known is how anxiety influences the metacognitive evaluations individuals make about their own performance. The present study explored the importance of task-relatedness in the relation between anxiety and metacognitive awareness. More specifically, we hypothesized that induced anxiety would affect metacognitive performance in opposite directions depending solely on whether the threat is perceived as related or unrelated to the performance. We conducted two experiments to test this hypothesis.In both studies, electric shocks were administered randomly, regardless of participant’s performance. In experiment 1, participants were informed that the shocks would be administered randomly, unrelated to performance. In experiment 2, participants were told that their metacognitive performance would influence the administration of the electric shocks (i.e. fewer electric shocks with better metacognitive performance). Our predictions were confirmed. Threat perceived as unrelated to metacognitive performance (Experiment 1) decreased metacognitive performance. Threat believed to be related to metacognitive performance resulted in improved performance (Experiment 2).These findings confirm that induced anxiety exerts a strong influence on metacognitive awareness while sparing first-order task performance. We furthermore demonstrate that the perceived relatedness of the anxiety determines whether metacognitive performance decreases or improves performance under threat.     

Metacognitive processes in the self-regulation of performance in elite endurance runners

ObjectiveThis study sought to investigate the dynamics of attentional focus and cognitive control during endurance activity from a metacognitive perspective. The study also intended to examine the situational factors which may influence cognitive strategy use by elite endurance runners.DesignSemi-structured qualitative interviews were utilised.MethodTen elite-level endurance runners were interviewed to explore retrospectively their attentional focus and cognitive strategy use during endurance running.ResultsThe findings revealed that metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, reviewing and evaluating, and metacognitive experiences were fundamental to cognitive control and cognitive strategy use in elite endurance runners. The findings also added to the array of active self-regulatory strategies previously reported in the literature.ConclusionsThese results suggest that metacognitive processes are central to effective cognitive control in elite endurance athletes during running. The findings allowed for the development of an integrative metacognitive framework, which incorporates dimensions of attentional focus. This model may better represent the processes which underpin cognitive control and determine cognitive strategy use in elite athletes during endurance running.     

Collective decision making reduces metacognitive control and increases error rates,particularly for overconfident individuals

This research aimed to investigate the changes in judgment accuracy, confidence, control thresholds, and decision outcomes when people act in two-person groups (dyads) compared with acting individually. First, we used interacting dyads to determine the metacognitive and behavioral outcomes of collective decision making and compared them with those of individuals. Second, we examined whether these changes were related to the trait-confidence and bias of individuals working together. Using a within-person design, undergraduate psychology students (N = 116) completed a General-knowledge Test individually, then together as a dyad. Each question was accompanied by a confidence rating and a decision to bet $10 on the answer. Dyads had significantly higher confidence and lower control thresholds than individuals. They were also significantly more decisive (made more bets) and reckless (lost a higher rate of bets) than when working alone. Thus, we observed a higher rate of decision errors for groups than individuals. The results also demonstrated the important role of individual differences: Overconfident individuals became even more confident, decisive, and reckless when working together compared with less confident or underconfident individuals working together. These findings have important theoretical and applied implications for collective decision making; metacognitive bias and potentially control thresholds may be targeted to alleviate the larger error rates and guide the formation of more effective groups.     

Comparison of two group counseling approaches to enhancing confidence in planning careers by undecided Taiwanese college women

This is a report of research comparing two approaches to enhance the career confidence of undecided female college students. 30 women who requested enrollment in career counseling were assigned to two counseling groups (a cognitive reconstructing intervention group and a career decision-making skills training group) and one no-treatment control group based on time of request. After participating in the two career counseling groups for eight sessions in a month, the female college students rated their mean confidence as increased over that of the no-treatment group. Analysis indicated that the indecisive female college students benefitted from career group counseling with an emphasis on self-efficacy and that the cognitive reconstructing intervention was more effective.     

Allocation of self-paced study time and the "labor-in-vain effect"

This research explored the possibility that a metacognitive control process (namely, the allocation of self-paced study time) might be affected by the output from metacognitive monitoring processes (i.e., ease-of-learning and/or feeling-of-knowing judgments). In three experiments, university undergraduates received instructions that emphasized either accuracy of learning or speed of learning. The major findings were: (a) ease-of-learning judgments and feeling-of-knowing judgments are reliably related to study-time allocation, with more self-paced study time being allocated to the supposedly more difficult items; (b) even when instructed to master every item and when allowed unlimited study time to do so, people terminate study before learning is completed; and (c) large increases in self-paced study time can yield little or no increase in the subsequent likelihood of recall (the "labor-in-vain effect"). Implications are drawn for a model of the interplay between metacognitive monitoring processes and metacognitive control processes.     

Metacognitions in patients with hallucinations and obsessive-compulsive disorder: the superstition factor

On the basis of the analogy between intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations established by Morrison et al. [(1995). Intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations: a cognitive approach. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 265-280], the present work compares the metacognitive beliefs and processes of five groups of patients (current hallucinators, never-hallucinated people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, recovered hallucinators, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) patients, and a clinical control group) and a non-clinical group. The results show that of the five metacognitive factors considered in this study, two were found to be different in the current hallucinators group in comparison to any other group in the design. Likewise, it is found that the metacognitive beliefs of the current hallucinators coincide with those of the OCD patients in various factors, particularly that relating to superstition, and this is interpreted as lending support to the model of Morrison et al. (1995). Furthermore, the results are discussed in the light of existing research on Thought-Action Fusion, stressing the role that may be played by superstitious beliefs and magical thinking in auditory hallucinations and OCD.     

重量对元认知监控的无意识影响

采用结构知识归因的方法,以学习判断和项目优先选择作为元认知监测和控制的指标,考察重量对元认知监控的影响是否是无意识的。被试学习粘贴在不同重量纸盒上的词对,进行学习判断(实验1)或项目选择(实验2),并报告其判断或选择的依据。结果:(1)重量影响学习判断和项目优先选择,相对于轻纸盒,被试给予重纸盒上的词对更高的JOL并优先选择重纸盒上的词对进行学习;(2)重量对学习判断的影响只发生在判断依据为猜测的情况下,重量对项目优先选择的影响只发生在判断依据为猜测和直觉的情况下。上述结果支持了元认知的具身性,并提示重量对元认知监控的影响可能是无意识的。     

聋人大学生心理控制源对求职行为的影响：职业成熟度的中介作用

采用中国大学生控制源测量问卷、职业成熟度量表和高校应届毕业生求职调查问卷对重庆、北京、吉林、天津4地4所高校的386名聋人大学生进行调查,旨在探讨聋人大学生心理控制源、职业成熟度与求职行为的关系,揭示职业成熟度在心理控制源与求职行为之间的中介作用机制。结果发现：（1）内控对职业成熟度和求职行为均具有显著的正向预测作用。（2）职业成熟度在内控与求职行为之间起部分中介作用。（3）职业成熟度在外控对求职行为的影响中起着“遮掩效应”。     

聋人大学生心理控制源对求职行为的影响：职业成熟度的中介作用

采用中国大学生控制源测量问卷、职业成熟度量表和高校应届毕业生求职调查问卷对重庆、北京、吉林、天津4地4所高校的386名聋人大学生进行调查,旨在探讨聋人大学生心理控制源、职业成熟度与求职行为的关系,揭示职业成熟度在心理控制源与求职行为之间的中介作用机制。结果发现：（1）内控对职业成熟度和求职行为均具有显著的正向预测作用。（2）职业成熟度在内控与求职行为之间起部分中介作用。（3）职业成熟度在外控对求职行为的影响中起着“遮掩效应”。