A COMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE DIRECTORS IN POPULAR PORNOGRAPHY: WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WOMEN ARE AT THE HELM?

Pornography is a lucrative business. Increasingly, women have participated in both its production, direction, and consumption. This study investigated how the content in popular pornographic videos created by female directors differs from that of their male counterparts. We conducted a quantitative analysis of 122 randomly selected scenes from 44 top-renting adult videos in 2005 (half male- and half female-directed). Findings revealed that all films shared similar depictions: Verbal and physical aggression was common, women were the primary targets of aggression, and negative responses to aggression were extremely rare. Compared to male-directed films, female-directed films were significantly more likely to portray women-only scenes and sexual acts. Even when controlling for main characters' gender, female-directed films showed significantly more female perpetrators aggressing against female targets and significantly more depictions of women as perpetrators of aggression. We highlight the importance of economic forces, rather than director gender, in dictating the content of popular pornography.     

The impact of mothers' gender-role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions.

The focus of this study is the relation between mothers' gender stereotypic beliefs, their perceptions of their children's abilities, and their children's self-perceptions in 3 activity domains. Approximately 1,500 mothers and their 11- to 12-year-old children responded to questions about the children's abilities in the math, sports, and social domains. It was predicted that mothers' beliefs about their children would be moderated by their gender stereotypic beliefs about the abilities of female and male people in general. As predicted, path analyses revealed that mothers' gender stereotypic beliefs interact with the sex of their child to influence their perceptions of the child's abilities. Mothers' perceptions, in turn, mediate the influence of past performance on children's self-perceptions in each domain.     

Children's perceptions of male and female principals and teachers

This study examined the influence of male and female school principals on first graders' perceptions of school principals and teachers. Participants were 190 male and female first graders who were shown four videotapes depicting all combinations of male and female teachers and principals. Results showed that children were accurate in their labeling of the videotapes regardless of whether the roles presented were stereotypical or counterstereotypical, and regardless of the sex of their principal. On rating scales, children with female principals were more nonstereotypical than children with male principals. Maternal employment was unrelated to their perceptions of teachers and principals. The results suggest that first-grade children do not hold overly stereotypic views and that the presence of both sexes as models for the role of school principal can have a noticeable positive effect on children's perceptions.     

Attributes and roles assigned to characters in children's writing: Sex differences and sex-role perceptions

This research examined the creative writing of 180 elementary school children for evidence of sex difference and sex-role perceptions. Stories were analyzed for frequency of male and female characters, attributes, and roles. Writers were equally divided by sex and into three age groups—grades 1–2, 3–4, and 5–6. Results suggest that the total number of characters, roles, and attributes was equivalent. However, the distribution of male and female characters, roles, and attributes differed with male and female writers. Female writers included significantly more female characters and assigned more attributes and roles to these characters. Nevertheless, in the stories of both male and female writers, there was a predominance of male characters and assignment of attributes and roles to male characters. The findings support the development and implementation of a nonsexist curriculum.     

The effect of a vocational unit on the exploration of nontraditional career options

As part of a community college orientation course, a curriculum model was developed to help male and female students explore career goals with an awareness of the influence of sexism and stereotypic attitudes on their occupational choices. This model was compared to a traditional vocational exploration unit that did not include an examination of stereotypic attitudes. Three criterion measures for male and female subjects were used in this study, including the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), an occupational brief selection form, and a three-item questionnaire to evaluate the selected briefs. Additionally, female students completed the Life Style Index. The findings indicated that although no significant impact can be attributed to the experimental treatment, the sex differences found in this study may provide a point of departure for future programs focusing on increasing nontraditional options in vocational exploration. This research does call into question, however, the value of short-term programs which claim to expand nontraditional career options.     

Sex differences in a simulated classroom economy: Children's beliefs about entrepreneurship

The purposes of this study were (1) to measure sex differences in children's perceptions of entrepreneurship and occupational sex-stereotyping and (2) to assess sex differences in children's risk taking, persistence, and economic success. For 10 weeks 938 children in grades 3–6 participated in Mini-Society, an experience-based economics education instructional program. Child self-report measures and teacher ratings were utilized. Before Mini-Society children reported entrepreneurship to be primarily a male domain. There was less entrepreneurial stereotyping after Mini-Society, especially in favor of girls. Children's occupational sex stereotyping also decreased following Mini-Society. Finally, there were no sex differences in the children's risk taking, persistence, or economic success during the Mini-Society experience.     

The influence of gender and temperament on children's interaction with a baby

This study examined gender differences in children's interaction with a baby who visited their day-care center over several weeks. Twenty-two children ranging in age from 47 to 64 months of age participated. The children's teacher filled out a questionnaire assessing each child's extraversion, activity level, and loudness. A female baby visited the day care center from one to three times a week over a two-month period. Each child's interactions with the baby were observed twice. Active, outgoing, loud girls were much more likely to interact with the baby than either quiet girls or any boys. Several of these highly interactive girls had no younger siblings. Children were found to interact with the baby more on their second observation.The research reported here was supported by a grant from the Purdue Research Foundation. I would like to thank Connie Clauss for her help with data collection.     

A Teacher-Consultation Approach to Social Skills Training for Pre-Kindergarten Children: Treatment Model and Short-Term Outcome Effects

This study evaluated the post-treatment outcome effects of a classroom-based social skills program for pre-kindergarten children, using a teacher-consultation model. The pre-K RECAP (Reaching Educators, Children, and Parents) program is a semi-structured, cognitive-behavioral skills training program that provides teachers with in-classroom consultation on program implementation and classroom-wide behavior management. Data on children's social skills and behavior problems were collected from parents and teachers at pre- and post-treatment, for 149 children aged 4–5 years (of whom 56% were girls). Significant treatment effects were found for teacher but not parent reports, with treatment group children improving significantly more than comparison group children in their teacher-rated social skills and internalizing and externalizing problems. These results provide some preliminary support for the efficacy of the program on children's social skills and behavior problems, and for a teacher-consultation model for training teachers to implement school-based mental health programs.     

Israeli kindergarten children's gender constancy for others' counter‐stereotypic toy play and appearance: the role of sibling gender and relative age

To test divergent theoretical predictions as to the impact of having a younger or older, same‐sex sibling or opposite‐sex sibling on other gender constancy, Israeli kindergarten children in two‐child families responded to a gender constancy task in which a male and female picture target engaged in counter‐stereotypic toy play and adopted counter‐stereotypic appearance. Children were also asked whether the target child could change sex at will and to explain the difference between boys and girls. Relative age of sibling, both independently and in interaction with participant sex, was associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic toy play. Relative age of sibling and sibling sex was independently associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic appearance. In both cases, children with a younger sibling evidenced greater gender constancy. Boys, especially ones with a male sibling, referred most explicitly to target's birth sex in accounting for his or her being unable to change sex at will. Genital and anatomical differences between boys and girls were cited more often by children who referred explicitly to target's birth sex and had a younger sibling. The results were discussed in the context of theories of gender development and the socialization of gender within the family. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sex-role perception,portrayal, and preference in the fantasy play of young children

The naturalistic observation of role-taking behavior in 90 spontaneously occurring (i.e., unelicited) fantasy play episodes of 16 4-year-old children in same-sex paired interaction revealed (1) a differential perception of male, female, parental, and conjugal roles, particularly in terms of competence; (2) the accuracy, depth, and breadth of their sex-role portrayals; and (3) a preference for same-sex role-play. The assimilative and accommodative functions of roleplay in the early acquisition of sex role are discussed, as well as the degree of decentration required for the roleplay activities to occur.The research reported here was carried out at Cornell University. It was part of a doctoral dissertation on the nature of fantasy in the spontaneous play of young children, which was in turn part of a larger study of peer interaction conducted by Lee C. Lee. It was supported by a research grant from the College of Human Ecology, State University of New York. This article was originally presented as a paper at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, March 1977.     

Effects of modeling on the use of nonsexist language among high school freshpersons and seniors

The present study examined how modeling, grade in school, gender, and attitudes toward women relate to sexist or nonsexist language usage in high school students. Eighty-four female and 60 male high school students, including 77% white, 20% African-American, and 3% “other” participants, completed three questionnaires. The Sexist Language Detector (SLD), a 24 item questionnaire, assessed the use of sexist and nonsexist language by requiring written solutions to ethical dilemmas. Instructions on the SLD included either sexist examples, nonsexist examples, or no example (control). The nonsexist examples condition served as the modeling intervention. Participants completed the shortened versions of J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich's Personal Attributes Questionnaire of 1978 and Attitudes toward Women Scale of 1972. Multiple regression analysis indicated main effects for gender, year in school, and condition on nonsexist language use. Participants with nonsexist instructions used significantly more nonsexist language than the other two groups. No significant difference was found among the three groups on the use of sexist language. Freshpersons were more likely to use nonsexist language than seniors. Females used more nonsexist language than males.     

CLIENT PREFERENCE FOR COUNSELOR GENDER

This article presents the results of an investigation of male and female clients' expressed preferences for gender of their counselor. The study addressed two major comparisons: clients with a preference for therapist gender versus those without a preference, and clients with a preference for a male therapist versus those with a preference for a female therapist. LOGIT analyses indicate significant relationships among sex of the client, sex of the intake counselor, whether or not clients express a preference, and whether they express a preference for a male or female counselor. Results also suggest an influence of the sex of the intake counselor. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for counseling and research activities.     

The colour of gender stereotyping

Despite legislative attempts to eliminate gender stereotyping from society, the propensity to evaluate people on the basis of their sex remains a pernicious social problem. Noting the critical interplay between cultural and cognitive factors in the establishment of stereotypical beliefs, the current investigation explored the extent to which culturally transmitted colour-gender associations (i.e., pink is for girls, blue is for boys) set the stage for the automatic activation and expression of gender stereotypes. Across six experiments, the results demonstrated that (1) consumer choice for children's goods is dominated by gender-stereotyped colours (Experiment 1); (2) colour-based stereotypic associations guide young children's behaviour (Experiment 2); (3) colour-gender associations automatically activate associated stereotypes in adulthood (Experiments 3-5); and (4) colour-based stereotypic associations bias impressions of male and female targets (Experiment 6). These findings indicate that, despite prohibitions against stereotyping, seemingly innocuous societal practices may continue to promote this mode of thought.     

Ethnic and sex differences in occupational stereotyping by elementary school children

As part of the formative evaluation of an educational television and print package, fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade public school Black, Hispanic, and Anglo children were surveyed regarding career choice and perceptions of the appropriateness of selected occupations for male and female adults and children. Responses were analyzed by ethnic membership and sex. Results indicated that in general Hispanic and Anglo girls chose more non traditional, higher-status occupations than Black girls. For boys, however, there was no clear interaction between sex and ethnic group in career choice. Girls and boys in all three ethnic groups indicated preference for careers stereotyped for their own sex, although girls—particularly Anglo girls—showed a greater tendency to cross sex-stereotyped lines. In addition, while both girls and boys in all three groups stereotyped as appropriate only for females those occupations regarded as traditionally female, traditionally male occupations were stereotyped more frequently by boys than by girls, who tended to consider them appropriate for both sexes. No differences appeared between ethnic groups in boys' responses to male and female adult occupations. In general Black girls tended to hold the most stereotypic views of job appropriateness, while Hispanic girls did not show a clear trend. Black boys tended to stereotype more than the other two groups with reference to child jobs on a boy-stereotype scale. Some differences also appeared in both boys' and girls' responses on the basis of a median split between high and low stereotypers on boy and girl child-job stereotype scales. In general, subjects who stereotyped child jobs tended also to stereotype adult occupations, suggesting a link between the child's current experience and the more remote world of adults. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The role of facial attractiveness and facial masculinity/femininity in sex classification of faces

We tested whether adults (experiment 1) and 4 - 5-year-old children (experiment 2) identify the sex of highly attractive faces faster and more accurately than not very attractive faces in a reaction-time task. We also assessed whether facial masculinity/femininity facilitated identification of sex. Results showed that attractiveness facilitated adults' sex classification of both female and male faces and children's sex classification of female, but not male, faces. Moreover, attractiveness affected the speed and accuracy of sex classification independently of masculinity/femininity. High masculinity in male faces, but not high femininity in female faces, also facilitated sex classification for both adults and children. These findings provide important new data on how the facial cues of attractiveness and masculinity/femininity contribute to the task of sex classification and provide evidence for developmental differences in how adults and children use these cues. Additionally, these findings provide support for Langlois and Roggman's (1990 Psychological Science 1 115 121) averageness theory of attractiveness.     

Learning to Be Little Women and Little Men: The Inequitable Gender Equality of Nonsexist Children's Literature

Change in gender roles has been predominantly asymmetric: The roles of women have changed more than the roles of men. To explore the reflection of such asymmetry in the popular culture, we examined how books recommended to teachers and parents as “nonsexist” differed from books categorized as “sexist.” Multiple raters read a sample of elementary-level novels and rated the portrayals of various forms of sexism, including stereotypic personality, segregated work and family roles, status inequality, gender segregation, the traditional idealization of femininity, and unequal representation of the sexes. Although nonsexist books were more likely than sexist books to portray female characters who adopted male-stereotypic characteristics and roles, both types of books similarly portrayed female-stereotypic personality, domestic chores, and leisure activities. Such portrayals may contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequality, particularly if they are held up as examples of equality.     

The Gender-Role Content of Children's Favorite Television Programs and Its Links to Their Gender-Related Perceptions

Two studies were conducted to (a) examine the gender-role stereotypical, counterstereotypical, and gender-neutral messages contained in a sample of first- and second-grade children's favorite television programs; and (b) to link the results of the content analysis to the children's gender-role values and interpersonal attraction to same- and opposite-gender television characters while the content analysis showed that there was a great deal of gender neutrality in the programs the children preferred. However, as predicted, male characters were still more likely than female characters to answer questions, boss or order others, show ingenuity, achieve a goal, and eat. The results of the survey showed that preference for stereotypical content predicted boys' valuing hard work and humor. In addition, for girls preference for male stereotypical and male counterstereotypical content negatively predicted interpersonal attraction to female characters, whereas preference for female counterstereotypical and gender-neutral content positively predicted interpersonal attraction to female characters. For boys preference for female counterstereotypical content positively predicted interpersonal attraction to male characters.     

The influence of gender on occupational aspirations of kindergarten children

By updating and extending previous research on the effect of gender role socialization on occupational choices of children, this research found very sexstereotypical occupational preferences in a sample of 540 kindergarten children. The girls in the study selected occupations that averaged 87% female and the boys selected occupations averaging 84% male. The boys perceived a significantly wider range of vocational options than the girls. In a reversal condition, children were asked to pretend to be of the opposite sex. Most of the children selected occupations with sex ratios favoring their pretended sex; girls were slightly more stereotypic than boys. An unanticipated finding was the extremeness of reactions of the boys to the suggestion that they pretend to be girls. It is argued that current sex-role socialization fails to recognize the realities of the expanding participation of women in the paid labor force.