Correlates of motives for suicide

Analysis of a large sample of suicide notes from 262 suicides in Australia showed separated/divorced suicides and suicides who abused alcohol were more likely to give love/romance as a precipitant for suicide while those who used gas (natural or car exhaust) were more likely to give depression and guilt as a motive.     

Dealing with Hurt: An Assessment of Dispositional Style and Ethnicity in Coping Strategies

This study explored differences in coping styles based on the type of hurt experienced. Participants included 398 students (291 female and 87 male), who completed a computerized assessment of dispositional hurt, coping styles, and depression. The interrelationships amongst the two hurt typologies (introjective and retaliatory), 12 coping styles, and depression then were analyzed. Results showed that people with an introjective hurt disposition were more likely to use emotional support and instrumental support than those with a retaliatory hurt disposition, who were more likely to engage in planning and humor. Moreover, ethnic differences for two coping styles emerged; specifically, African Americans were more likely to use religion, whereas Caucasians were more likely to use substances as primary coping mechanisms.     

Suicide of a Patient: Gender Differences in Bereavement Reactions of Therapists

Emotional reactions of therapists who experienced the death by suicide of one or more of their patients were investigated. Data were collected by a questionnaire containing both objective and open-ended items from 27 men and 36 women, psychiatrists and psychologists, working in psychiatric hospitals in Slovenia. The most frequently reported reactions by the therapists were of increased caution in the treatment of their patients and an increase in conferring with colleagues, partners, and supervisors. About two thirds reported experiencing strong guilt feelings along with other commonly reported survivor feelings of grief, depression, and loss. Gender differences were apparent (women more often felt shame and guilt, sought consolation, or doubted their professional knowledge). No significant differences appeared between disciplines and years of work experience. Agreement was general that support was important both professionally and personally. Suggestions are offered to help the therapist work through the trauma of a patient's suicide.     

An Inquiry into Relationship Suicides and Reciprocity

Few theories on suicide have been grounded in the norm of reciprocity. There is literature on suicide, however, describing motivations such as retaliation and retreat which can be interpreted as modes of adaptation to the norm of reciprocity. We propose a reciprocity‐based theory to explain suicides associated with relationship problems. Employing a content analysis of suicide notes, we tested the theory, finding evidence of exploitation, exploiter guilt, retaliation, and retreat as motives for committing relationship‐based suicide. Reciprocity‐based note writers were more likely to have used alcohol or drugs in the hours prior to committing suicide, and they were also more likely to have made their intentions known beforehand. Implications for future research as well as for suicide prevention are discussed.     

Additive impact of childhood emotional,physical, and sexual abuse on suicide attempts among low-income African American women

This study examines the association between exposures to multiple forms of childhood abuse (emotional, physical, sexual) and adult suicidal behavior in a sample of low-income, African American women. We hypothesized a linear relation between childhood abuse and risk for making a suicide attempt, such that the more forms of childhood abuse to which a woman was exposed, the greater her risk would be to make a suicide attempt. Logistic regression analyses revealed that, compared to women who did not report any experiences of childhood abuse, women who experienced one, two, or three forms of abuse were 1.83, 2.29, or 7.75 times more likely to attempt suicide, respectively (all statistically significant). Furthermore, compared to women who reported one or two types of abuse, women who reported all three types of abuse were statistically more likely to attempt suicide. These findings have implications for clinicians working with African American women who report either childhood abuse or exhibit suicidal behavior.     

Suicidal behavior, negative affect, gender, and self-reported delinquency in college students

The associations among suicidal behavior, negative affect, and delinquency were assessed via an anonymous self-report survey administered to male and female college students ( N = 383). Contrary to our hypothesized results, there were no gender differences in rates of suicidal ideation and attempts. Confirming our hypotheses about gender differences, college men did report significantly more delinquent behavior than college women. College men also scored higher on the suicide-proneness scale, which contained a mixture of death-related, risk-related, and negative self- and health-related items. Furthermore, as predicted, college students with a history of depression, suicide ideation, and/or suicide attempts all reported significantly more delinquent behavior. Self-reported delinquency and current levels of depressive symptomology emerged as significant predictors of suicide-prone behavior for both college men and women, explaining 34% of the variance for women and 17% for men. Levels of engagement in suicide-prone behavior and feelings of depression were elevated in college students with any type of juvenile arrest history. Students with an arrest history were also more likely to have had a diagnosis of depression and to have engaged in suicide ideation in their past. These findings suggest there are complex links between depression, delinquency, and suicidal behavior in college men and women.     

大学生羞耻和内疚差异的对比研究

以 48名北京大学本科生为被试 ,检验羞耻和内疚差异的 3种假设 :研究一同时检验“公开化与私人化”和“个人无能与违背道德”两个假设 ;研究二检验“伤害自我与伤害他人”假设。方法是依次呈现一系列不同的负性情境 (情境事先已按要检验的假设加以控制 ) ,要求被试设想自己亲身经历该情境 ,然后回答体验到的羞耻和内疚的程度及理由。结果表明 :①“公开化与私人化”对羞耻和内疚的影响有显著差异 (p <0 0 5 ) :“有他人在场”可以易化羞耻 ,而内疚感的产生一般不需要“观众”在场。②“违背道德”在引发羞耻和内疚感上基本相等 ,而“个人无能”引起更多的羞耻感 (p <0 0 1)。③“公开化与私人化”和“个人无能与违背道德”的交互作用不显著。④“伤害自我”更多引起羞耻感 (p <0 0 5 ) ,而“伤害他人”更多引起内疚感 (p <0 0 1)。     

Recent life events, social adjustment, and suicide attempts in patients with major depression and borderline personality disorder

This study investigated the impact of recent life events and social adjustment on suicide attempter status in 34 patients with major depression, 24 patients with borderline personality disorder, and 22 patients with co-morbid major depression and borderline personality disorder. Suicide attempters reported more recent life events and scored lower on a measure of social adjustment in their families and overall social adjustment, compared with non-attempters. Borderline disordered and borderline or depressed patients were more likely to have attempted suicide than patients with major depression only. Recent life events did not predict attempter status. Lower social adjustment in the immediate family and lower overall social adjustment were predictive of suicide attempter classification, regardless of diagnosis. Borderline disordered patients low on overall social adjustment were over 16 times more likely to have attempted suicide than patients diagnosed with major depression only. Recent life events may elevate suicide risk in groups already at high risk for suicide completion, whereas high levels of social adjustment may be protective against stress-related suicidal behavior.     

Cognitive behavioral perspectives on women and guilt

This paper discusses the application of cognitive behavior therapies to the treatment of the guilt difficulties that women experience in Western industrialized societies. Evidence on the relevance of guilt to women is reviewed, including psychological problems common to women that involve high guilt, sex differences in personality traits, and sex-typing in social roles. Cognitive behavioral theories of guilt are summarized. Areas of inquiry in assessment of dysfunctional guilt are discussed. Three cognitive behavioral treatment strategies for women's guilt are presented. In permission-giving, guilt-provoking behavior is reframed as acceptable. Interventions to lessen discrepancies between guilt-provoking behavior and core roles that are central to self-definition can focus on revising core role requirements and on making behavior more consistent with core roles. Rational-emotive therapy focuses on reduction of irrational beliefs that support self-blame and conditional selfworth and developing more adaptive cognitions. Treatment recommendations for specific guilt problems in assertive refusal and in the aftermath of assault are also reviewed.Ellen Tobey Klass, PhD, associate professor of psychology at Hunter College, City University of New York, and has a private practice in New York City.     

Depressive Thought Content Among Female College Students With Bulimia

The author used a rationalistic cognitive approach to identify typical thought content among female college students with bulimia. The study compared overall depression scores on the Beck Depression Inventoy between women with bulimia and women in a control group and examined differences in specific depression items. Results indicated that women with bulimia are more depressed than are controls and have distorted thoughts regarding body image, self-blame, somatic preoccupation, guilt, and suicidal ideation. By emphasizing competition, perfection, motivation, and attractiveness, the college environment may exacerbate distorted thinking, thus indirectly contributing to the development and maintenance of bulimia. A treatment approach focusing on cognition is proposed.     

Suicide schema in schizophrenia: the effect of emotional reactivity, negative symptoms and schema elaboration

Suicide risk is thought to increase with a greater potential for activation of suicide-related schemas. Suicide schemas are less likely to be activated with reductions of emotional range associated with certain negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The study tested whether suicide risk would increase in patients with recent onset schizophrenia with increased potential for suicide schema activation as indicated by lower levels of specific negative symptoms that reflected emotional reactivity, namely emotional withdrawal and blunted affect. A logistic regression analysis of baseline data of 278 recent onset schizophrenic patients with a measure of suicide behaviour as the dependent variable and negative symptoms, delusions, hallucinations, depression, gender, episode, ethnicity, education, age, duration of untreated psychosis and substance use as independent variables was carried out. Emotional withdrawal, but not blunted affect was significant and negatively associated, and depression positively associated with suicide behaviour. There was evidence to indicate that restricted emotions are associated with reduced suicide risk as predicted.     

Reports of attempted suicide among Brazilian addicts

Both substance dependence and depressive mood seem to be associated with increased suicide risk. Clinical information on suicide attempts and depressive symptoms were obtained from a sample of 211 psychoactive substance dependents attending a university clinic program for addicts in Brazil. 49 subjects (23.4%) had attempted suicide at least once, and the frequency of reporting attempts was 4.32 times greater among women than among men. Male addicts also tended to engage in potentially more dangerous attempt methods than women. Depressive male addicts were 2.17 times more likely to have attempted suicide than nondepressive addicted men. Among women, no association could be established between having attempted suicide and the presence of depression. Substance addicts have a relatively high risk of attempting suicide and the co-occurrence of depression seems to increase prevalence of suicidal behavior among men.     

内疚的认知和情绪活动及其脑区调控

内疚是个体做出危害他人的行为或违反道德准则之后产生的良心上的反省, 对行为负有责任的一种负性体验。内疚在道德规范和人际社会中具有重要的作用。研究者主要采取自我报告范式、情境模拟范式、过失范式和经济博弈范式考察内疚的发生发展及其功能。近年来, 研究者尝试揭示内疚脑机制, 研究发现内疚主要激活前额叶皮层和脑岛等脑区, 前额叶可能与内疚的认知成分相关, 而脑岛主要与内疚的情绪成分相关。未来的研究需要采用多种技术手段进一步考察内疚的认知神经机制。     

Defense Mechanisms in Rational Emotive Cognitive Behavior Therapy Personality Theory

It has been argued that if rational emotive cognitive behavior therapy (RECBT) is to survive and prosper in the present century, the personality theory underlying it requires further development, greater clarification, and more comprehensiveness. In this article it is argued that RECBT personality theory could be further broadened and strengthened by attempting to incorporate the classic defense mechanisms of psychoanalytic theory via stripping them away from Freud’s hypothetical dynamic unconscious and instead resting them on Ellis’s concept of the unconscious. First, to provide proper context, the unconscious and the defense mechanisms are briefly discussed. Then attention is turned to the 10 classic defense mechanisms, discussed one by one. In each described mechanism, the mechanism in question is defined, then placed in the framework of RECBT personality theory along with ample examples. Then the clinical implications of each mechanism are briefly explored, with RECBT practitioners in mind. It is hoped that this discussion will, in some way, help to broaden and strengthen RECBT theory and practice.     

A Preliminary Study for Exploring Different Sources of Guilt in a Sample of Veterans Who Sought Chaplaincy Services

Limited research has suggested that experiencing guilt may contribute to the risk of suicidal behavior in some veteran populations. Using data collected by chaplains, this study compared the frequency with which 94 veterans with a history of suicide ideation experienced guilt relative to 670 veterans without a history of ideation. We then compared main sources of guilt reported by ideators and nonideators. Ideators reported experiencing guilt significantly more often than nonideators. No differences were noted for the source of guilt among those who reported frequently experiencing this emotion. Ideators with an infrequent experience of guilt significantly more often named life and the military as the main source of this emotion. Clinicians should be mindful of the need to appropriately assess for and address guilt among veterans at increased risk of suicide. A variety of sources, not limited only to military experiences, may contribute to a veteran’s sense of guilt.     

Sex differences in depressive symptom expression and help-seeking among college students

Considerable controversy has emerged around the issue of sex differences in depression. A recent study of a large sample of young, unmarried college student found no sex differences in degree of depression as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory, and yet significant sex differences emerged in the patterns of symptoms expressed by the most depressed subsample. It was speculated that sex differences in symptom expression may lead to sex differences in self-presentation, help-seeking, and evaluation by professionals — eventuating in predominance of women treated for depression. Two studies were conducted to clarify these issues. The first study attempted to replicate the findings on a similar large sample of college students using discriminant function analysis of male and female responses to the D30 subscale of the Depression scale of the MMPI. The results confirmed the previous finding that depressed men in a college population are more likely to express social withdrawal, cognitive and motivational deficits, and somatic concerns. Depressed women are characterized on the D30 by a lack of confidence, a lack of concern for what happens to them, and being hurt by criticism. The second study examined possible sex differences in the self-labeling of depression, attitudes toward seeking help for depression, and actual help-seeking behaviors. Men and women did not differ in willingness to report depression. However, there were clear sex differences in both help-seeking attitudes and reported behaviors, with men more reluctant to seek help.     

When the sexes need not differ: Emotional responses to the sexual and emotional aspects of infidelity

This study assessed whether previously reported sex differences in jealousy could be accounted for by other related emotions. Participants were presented with hypothetical scenarios involving both a sexual and an emotional infidelity, then were asked how jealous, angry, hurt, and disgusted they would be (using continuous scales). The results replicate the sex difference in response to sexual and emotional infidelity, demonstrate that it is robust when continuous measures are used, and confirm that it is unique to jealousy. Sex differences did not emerge for anger, hurt, or disgust. Instead, sexual infidelity elicited greater anger and disgust, and less hurt, than emotional infidelity, for both women and men. The results also suggest that it is the jealous response to an emotional infidelity that best discriminates women from men, and that both women and those participants in a serious, committed relationship reported significantly greater intensity in their emotional reactions, as compared to men and those not in a committed relationship.     

Childhood Abuse,Nonsuicidal Self‐Injury,and Suicide Attempts: An Exploration of Gender Differences in Incarcerated Adults

The relationship between types of childhood abuse, suicide attempts, and nonsuicidal self‐injury (NSSI) was examined in a sample of 415 incarcerated adults (268 men, 147 women). Men and women were equally likely to experience childhood abuse, although women were more likely to report sexual abuse and men were more likely to report emotional neglect. Sexual abuse was the only type of abuse found to predict NSSI and suicide attempts in women. For men, physical abuse and physical neglect were significant predictors of NSSI and suicide attempts, respectively. Gender differences exist and should be examined in future research in this area.     

Associations between Physical Self-Concept and Anticipated Guilt and Shame: The Moderating Role of Gender

Body-related emotions have been identified as important predictors of mental and physical health. Evaluations of the physical self are inextricably linked with body-related emotions. However, little research has addressed how physical self-concept is associated with anticipated emotions and how associations may differ between men and women. The current study examined associations between physical self-concept and anticipated guilt and shame and examined gender as a moderator of these associations. The sample consisted of 353 Canadian undergraduate students (55% female; M_age?=?21.94. range?=?18–64). Participants read a hypothetical scenario commonly associated with guilt and shame experiences and were asked to anticipate their emotional experience when imagining themselves in the scenario. Participants also indicated their gender and completed a measure of physical self-concept. Gender moderated the relationship between physical self-concept and anticipated shame but not guilt. Specifically, there was a negative association between physical self-concept and anticipated shame for women but not for men. Findings are consistent with the notion that gender role socialization shapes the emotional experiences, specifically feelings of shame, of men and women differently. The results demonstrate that even imagining a situation that runs counter to societal ideals for women’s bodies as thin and toned coincides with the anticipation of shame among adult women with more negative physical self-concept.

     

Emotional responses to sexual and emotional infidelity: constants and differences across genders, samples, and methods

In three studies (total N = 619), the authors tested an evolutionary hypothesis: Men are more bothered by sexual than emotional infidelity, whereas the reverse is true of women. More diverse samples (in age) and measures than is typical were used. In Study 1, the authors found across gender, sample, and method that sexual infidelity was associated with anger and blame, but emotional infidelity was associated with hurt feelings. The evolutionary effect was replicated with undergraduates but not with the nonstudent sample. In Study 2, narrative scenarios were used; it was found that nonstudent men and women were more hurt and upset by emotional infidelity but were made angrier by sexual infidelity. In Study 3, using Likert-type scales, scenarios, and a nonstudent sample, it was found that both genders were more upset, hurt, and angrier about sexual than emotional transgressions when rating one kind without hearing the opposite type. The implications for how emotional responses evolved are discussed.