Marital Adjustment and Irrational Beliefs

The present study was designed to determine which aspects of Ellis' irrational beliefs as well as emotional traits (anxiety, curiosity, anger) differentiate couples attending marriage counseling from couples couple not attending marriage counseling as well as levels of marital satisfaction in couples as measured by the Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment Test. Participants were 61 married couples, 18 of whom were attending marriage counseling and 43 who were not attending marriage counseling. Each partner completed a number of self-report questionnaires containing items measuring irrational /rational beliefs, anger, anxiety and curiosity, and communication skills. Correlational and multiple regression analyses indicate support for Albert Ellis' proposition concerning the importance of individual partner's emotional traits and accompanying irrational beliefs in marital adjustment and dissatisfaction. Self-downing and need for comfort were the dimensions of irrational thinking most strongly related to marital dysfunction. Anger, anxiety but neither curiosity nor communication skills distinguished individuals experiencing or not experiencing marital problems. Implications for relationship counseling are briefly discussed.     

Disputing Irrational Beliefs Among Convicted Terrorists and Extremist Beliefs

This study investigated the most common irrational beliefs among samples of: (1) convicted terrorists and (2) extremists, all of whom were prisoners in the country of Jordan. It also investigated the effectiveness of a program of disputing irrational beliefs (DIBP) with the same populations. The subjects were assigned randomly to two groups: an experimental group (EG) that consisted of 43 prisoners who received an training program, and a control group that consisted of 48 prisoners who received no training. The irrational beliefs scale (IBS) scores were assessed for both groups before and after exposure to the DIBP. To test the hypotheses of the study, means and standard deviations of the IBS measures were submitted to a two-way analysis of covariance. The results revealed that the most common irrational belief loaded on the factors of musts, exaggerations, and perfectionism. Moreover, the results revealed significant differences between the means of the two groups on the total IBS scores at post-test, with the EG scoring lower, which indicated the effectiveness of the training program in reducing the level of IBS. The results yielded significant differences in the effect of the reason for imprisonment in favor of extremists and the interaction between the reason for prison and treatment in favor of the EG and extremists.     

Positive Irrational Beliefs and Mental Health

Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - This study examined the relationship between positive irrational beliefs, or positive illusions, and mental health. It attempted to...     

Personality Traits Predict Irrational Beliefs

Irrational beliefs are the focus of many psychological theories, since research has shown that holding irrational beliefs often leads to unhealthy emotions, dysfunctional behaviors, and psychological disturbances. The aim of such therapies as rational emotive behavioral therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy is to dispute irrational beliefs to promote more rational ways of thinking; however they do not take into account individual personality differences. The aim of this study was to determine whether personality traits predict rational and irrational beliefs in a mixed student and clinical sample. It was hypothesized that the domains of the five factor model of personality would predict rational beliefs as well as a range of irrational beliefs. Our findings supported the hypothesis, showing distinct associations between personality traits and each specific irrational belief. Neuroticism predicted rational beliefs as well as six out of the seven types of irrational beliefs measured. Additionally, extraversion predicted rationality and self-downing, openness predicted need for comfort and total irrationality, and conscientiousness predicted need for achievement and demand for fairness. Agreeableness did not predict any type of rational or irrational beliefs. Knowledge of these distinct relationships may increase a clinician’s ability to conceptualize a therapy case and determine the best approach to treatment.     

Self-Compassion,Self-Esteem,and Irrational Beliefs

Assumptions associated with Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) suggest that self-compassion, but not self-esteem, should be incompatible with irrational beliefs and with the emotional disturbances that they produce. In this study, 184 university students responded to a self-compassion scale along with measures of irrational beliefs, self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. As expected, self-compassion correlated negatively with irrationality, predicted better mental health, and explained inverse connections of self-esteem with irrational beliefs. In support of REBT, the irrationality of low frustration tolerance also partially mediated the inverse self-compassion relationship with anxiety. Other findings for self-esteem and for the irrational belief of self-worth, nevertheless, suggested complexities for the REBT conceptual framework. These data most importantly confirmed self-compassion as part of what REBT would describe as an effective personal philosophy.     

Response Expectancies and Irrational Beliefs Predict Exam-Related Distress

Individual differences in cognitive factors such as response expectancies and irrational beliefs (IBs) have been shown to contribute to variability in distress associated with stressful situations. However, their independent influence on distress when examined within the same study has not been established, nor has the potential of mediational relationships. The purpose of this study was to investigate the contribution of response expectancies and IBs (both general and exam-specific) to exam-related distress in a prospective study. Results revealed that both response expectancies and general IBs separately predicted exam-related distress (p’s<.05; N=105). Observed effects of general IBs were perfectly mediated by, and observed effects of exam-specific IBs were partially mediated by, response expectancies using the Baron and Kenny approach. These data support the view that cognitive factors contribute to psychological distress and are consistent with response expectancy and rational emotive behavior theories. The results suggest that interventions focused on response expectancies and IBs might be an effective means to reduce psychological distress associated with real life stressors such as exams. Future research is needed to determine whether this effect generalizes to other stressful situations. Dr. Montgomery is Director of the Integrative Behavioral Medicine Program at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Dr. David is an associate professor at Babes-Bolyai University, in Romania. Dr. DiLorenzo is an assistant professor in the Psychology Department of Stern College. Dr. Schnur is a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Oncological Sciences at Mount Sinai School of Medicine. This work was supported by the National Cancer Institute (CA81137) and the American Cancer Society (PF-05-098-01-CPPB).     

Irrational Beliefs, Interpersonal Perception and Marital Adjustment

To test the hypothesis that the major evaluative beliefs postulated by Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy are related to marital adjustment, 50 married couples completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) and the Survey of Personal Beliefs (SPB). Significant correlations were found between DAS scores and three subscales (Other directed shoulds, Low frustration tolerance and Self worth) of the SPB. On the interpersonal dimension of assumed similarity, females in the high dyadic adjustment group were better able to predict their spouses' awfulizing, low frustration tolerance and self-worth beliefs than were females in the low adjustment group. However, the present study offers only limited support for the hypothesis that interpersonal perception of irrational evaluative beliefs is related to marital adjustment.     

Dispute Irrational Beliefs and Teach Rational Beliefs: An Interview with Albert Ellis

In this interview, Ellis acknowledges that irrational beliefs have a higher biological basis than rational beliefs and that they are not at opposite ends of the same continuum. Ellis agrees that irrational beliefs are more involved in mental health problems while rational beliefs contribute to the psychology of success. The strength of conviction in both rational and irrational beliefs including self-acceptance and self-downing is explored. Ellis equates the conviction with which rational beliefs need to be held to influence emotions and behaviors with “faith.” He acknowledges the importance of faith built on facts rather than religiosity. Ellis agrees that ridding strongly motivated individuals of self-depreciation may lead to a decrease in their high frustration tolerance and, ultimately, their drive for and achievement of success. Ellis supports adding an “F” to the ABCDE model—forcefully agreeing with and applying new rational beliefs. Ellis discusses the need to develop a literature on therapeutic techniques and methods for helping people to apply rational beliefs more strongly to different areas of their lives. Ellis highlights the perils of self-efficacy positive psychology interventions if people’s innate tendency towards self-depreciation is ignored. The interviewer concludes the interview expressing the view that if we listen to Ellis, “we” need to re-think the ways we teach people of all ages to think rationally knowing that the rational re-statement of previously disputed irrational beliefs is only one of many different teaching methods. This interview was conducted in January, 2005, at the Albert Ellis Institute. At the time of the interview, Dr. Ellis was in good health. In this interview held over two separate sessions, a series of questions prepared by the interviewer were presented to Albert Ellis that were designed to stimulate discussion on differences between rational and irrational beliefs and on the issue of whether once irrational beliefs have been disputed, more time and REBT methods need to be devoted to helping clients strengthen their conviction in and application of rational beliefs.     

Irrational Beliefs and the Experience and Expression of Anger

The present study assessed rational-emotive theories of anger by examining the interrelationships of irrational beliefs and the experience and expression of anger. An audiotaped anger-provoking scenario was used to determine whether irrational beliefs predicted state anger and hostile thoughts following provocation. After completing measures of irrational beliefs, trait anger, and anger expression and control, 161 college students were exposed to the provoking stimulus, which was followed by measures of state anger and hostile thoughts. Findings showed both low frustration tolerance and awfulizing were related to trait anger, anger suppression, and outward anger expression. Only low frustration tolerance was related to state anger following provocation. However, awfulizing was associated with all hostile thoughts, and both self-directed shoulds and self-worth were associated with derogatory thoughts about others. Only awfulizing had incremental validity over trait anger, and then, only in the prediction of derogatory thoughts.     

Irrational and Evaluative Beliefs in Individuals with Anger Disorders

Evaluative beliefs have long been regarded as hot cognitions fundamental to the arousal of emotion. Previous research on anger has predominantly focused on inferential beliefs, with explorations of evaluative beliefs largely ignored. Therefore, this paper presents an investigation of the nature of evaluative beliefs in individuals with anger disorders. To investigate the experimental hypotheses that individuals with anger disorders will report high levels of hostile related evaluative beliefs, two methodologies were applied to a clinical sample of individuals with anger disorders. Individuals with anger disorders reported hostile evaluative beliefs, but interestingly it was evident that such individuals endorsed high levels of negative self-evaluation. The implications of these findings for future research and clinical work are discussed.     

Irrational Beliefs and Self-Management as Separable Predictors of Anxiety and Depression

Irrational beliefs and self-management are both cognitive-behavioral constructs that are integral in modern Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy and Self-Management Therapy, respectively. Both irrational beliefs and self-management have been linked to anxiety and depression, and there is evidence for their usefulness for these types of distress. This is the first study to consider irrational beliefs and self-management as simultaneous predictors of anxiety and depression. An outpatient clinical sample (n = 51) completed measures of irrational beliefs, self-management, and emotional symptoms. Results indicated that as simultaneous predictors of fear and worry, self-management did not account for any additional variance accounted for by irrational beliefs. However, both irrational beliefs and self-management predicted unique variance in depression, negative affect, and positive affect. Exploratory analyses with single diagnosis (n = 26) and multiple diagnoses (n = 25) subsamples provided some divergent results. These results are discussed in terms of case conceptualization and potential future applications in the treatment of affective disorders, in particular depression.     

Irrational Beliefs as Predictors of Emotional Adjustment after Divorce

The goal of this study was to analyze the role of irrational beliefs and other mediating variables in emotional adjustment after marital separation. Self-esteem and attachment to the ex-spouse were chosen as indicators of emotional adjustment. For this purpose several mediation centres and associations for separated people took part in the project. The results showed that irrational beliefs, as well as length of conflict during marriage, time since divorce and desire of contact with the former spouse, are good predictors of emotional adjustment. It has been suggested that Rational-Emotive-Behavior Therapy can be used in the treatment of divorced people.     

Irrational Beliefs and Emotionality in Adolescents with and without Bronchial Asthma

Asthmatic adolescents (N = 129) between the ages of 12 and 18 were assembled into three groups on the basis of severity of illness and were compared with each other and with a fourth group of 74 healthy, nonasthmatic adolescents. Differences in selective cognitive (irrational beliefs) and emotional (anxiety, depression, and hostility) characteristics were examined. Multivariate analysis indicated that irrational beliefs in the importance of approval and the lack of control of emotions, along with self-reported anxiety, depression, or hostility, were strongly associated with disease severity. Whereas adolescents with mild asthma closely resembled the physically healthy comparison group, adolescents with moderate and severe asthma exhibited a cognitive-emotional complex that can be described as maladaptive or dysfunctional. Implications of these results for the treatment of asthma are discussed.     

Irrational Beliefs and Unconditional Self-Acceptance. III. The Relative Importance of Different Types of Irrational Belief

In two studies, one correlational (N = 158) and one experimental (N = 128), using college students, it was found that Need for Achievement, Need for Approval and Self-Downing were the most important irrational beliefs of the General Attitude and Belief Scale predicting unconditional self-acceptance. The Need for Comfort, Demand for Fairness and Other-Downing subscales were found to be less influential. The findings were discussed in terms of Ellis’ theoretical formulation of four higher-order types of irrational belief processes (demandingness, awfulizing, low-frustration tolerance and self-downing), empirical research on different irrational belief themes, the distinction between ego disturbance and discomfort disturbance in REBT and the distinction between sociotropy and autonomy in different forms of depression.     

The Development of a Measure of Irrational/Rational Beliefs

The Attitudes and Belief Scale-2 (ABS-2) developed in the late 1980s, is a measure of Ellis’ irrational and rational beliefs. Although no publication has described the instrument and it has only appeared in conference presentations, many researchers have used the ABS-2 to test REBT. This article describes the development of the ABS-2 and the original research on its psychometric properties. The scale has three factors that represent 24 different cells in a 4 × 2 × 3 factorial model. The first factor, Cognitive Processes, reflects Ellis’ concepts of Demandingness, Awfulizing, Frustration Intolerance, and Self-Downing. The second factor covers irrationally worded items versus rationally worded items. The rationally worded items were written to counter the irrational beliefs. The third factor includes content or life themes about which the person could be concerned, and includes Achievement, Affiliation, and Comfort. The ABS-2 generates a Total Score, a Total Irrationality Score, a Total Rationality score, and Scales scores representing each of the four Cognitive Processes domains and each of the three Content domains. The ABS-2 scores demonstrate adequate to excellent internal consistency, and correlate significantly with measures of depression, anxiety, life satisfaction, selfcontrol, well-being, and measures of internalizing personality disorders. The ABS-2 did not correlate significantly with measures of anger, externalizing personality disorders, mania, and somatoform disorder. An exploratory factor analysis provided weak support for the factor structure of the scale. The ABS-2 scores distinguish between normal and clinical samples. Rationally worded items discriminated between clinical and nonclinical groups much better than did the irrationally worded scales, suggesting that instruments that only assess irrational beliefs might underestimate the support for REBT.     

Measurement of Positive Irrational Beliefs (Positive Cognitive Illusions)

The role of positive irrational beliefs (positive cognitive illusions) in mental health has been debated over several decades. The measurement of such beliefs has usually been through inferential assessment, which has been heavily criticised. This paper sought to establish a measure for the direct assessment of such beliefs and to assess their relationship to subjective wellbeing (SWB). Over two studies this new measure was found to have a factor structure consistent with its design, assessing self-enhancing beliefs, beliefs rejecting imperfection, overly optimistic beliefs, and irrational beliefs of control. When combined, these beliefs account for 17.6 % of the variance with SWB. This is driven largely by a higher order factor, which demonstrates a positive relationship to SWB. However, individually the different types of irrational beliefs demonstrate a variety of relationships with SWB. It is therefore concluded that positive irrational beliefs, when directly assessed, provide a greater depth of information than they do when assessed inferentially.     

The Relationship Between Automatic Thoughts and Irrational Beliefs Predicting Anxiety and Depression

Cognitive behavioral approaches differ in their views on core cognitions and their hypothesized role in the etiology of depression and anxiety. The present study provides empirical evidence regarding the relationship between irrational beliefs and components of automatic thoughts and their role in the etiology of depression and anxiety. The present study utilized newer and improved questionnaires to assess components of irrational belief. Based on prior research by Safren et al. (Cogn Ther Res 24(3):327–344, 2000), a three-factor structure of the combined automatic thought questionnaires were utilized to measure components of automatic thoughts as they relate to depression and anxiety. Factor analytical methods were utilized to confirm the factor structure of the irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts components. Advanced path modeling was utilized to model the relationship between irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts in predicting anxiety and depression. The study used a sample of N = 542 undergraduate psychology students during stressful exam times. Results indicated that the irrational belief Demandingness represents a primary factor, followed by the secondary irrational beliefs as proposed by Rational Emotive Behavioral Theory. Selfdowning beliefs were fully mediated by depressive automatic thoughts in the case of depressive affect. Low frustration tolerance contributed unique variance to anxious and depressive affect that was not fully mediated by automatic thoughts. Results from the present study add empirical evidence that irrational beliefs indeed represent core and intermediary beliefs that lead to specific automatic thoughts, which is congruent with cognitive behavioral theory as proposed by Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy.