Friends with benefits: the evolved psychology of same- and opposite-sex friendship

During human evolution, men and women faced distinct adaptive problems, including pregnancy, hunting, childcare, and warfare. Due to these sex-linked adaptive problems, natural selection would have favored psychological mechanisms that oriented men and women toward forming friendships with individuals possessing characteristics valuable for solving these problems. The current study explored sex-differentiated friend preferences and the psychological design features of same- and opposite-sex friendship in two tasks. In Task 1, participants (N = 121) categorized their same-sex friends (SSFs) and opposite-sex friends (OSFs) according to the functions these friends serve in their lives. In Task 2, participants designed their ideal SSFs and OSFs using limited budgets that forced them to make trade-offs between the characteristics they desire in their friends. In Task 1, men, more than women, reported maintaining SSFs for functions related to athleticism and status enhancement and OSFs for mating opportunities. In Task 2, both sexes prioritized agreeableness and dependability in their ideal SSFs, but men prioritized physical attractiveness in their OSFs, whereas women prioritized economic resources and physical prowess. These findings suggest that friend preferences may have evolved to solve ancestrally sex-linked adaptive problems, and that opposite-sex friendship may directly or indirectly serve mating functions.     

The perception of erotic arousal in men and women by same- and opposite-sex peers

Recent empirical evidence suggests that males and females differ very little in their response to erotica. Yet public opinion suggests that there are indeed differences: perceived differences. The present study explored two possibilities why these perceived differences continue to exist. One basis for such differences would be that both males and females see males as being more aroused (or arousable) by erotic stimuli, that is, a pure gender stereotype. A second possibility, suggested by Griffitt (1973), is that individuals who are asked to indicate how they think others would respond depend primarily on a projection process to make these attributions. The results of the study suggest that the latter process is more typical of males than of females; and that the former process is partially true for females, who tend as well to view all others (males and females) as being more aroused by erotic stimuli than they themselves are.This research was supported in part by Research Grant MH 16351-02 from the National Institute of Mental Health to the second author and is based in part on a paper delivered at the International Conference on Love and Attraction, Swansea, Wales, 1977. The authors wish to thank Glenn Littlepage and Rita Steifel for their assistance.     

The effect of anticipated future interaction on reward allocation in same- and opposite-sex dyads

Hypotheses were tested concerning the relationship of anticipated future interaction and sex of allocator vs. sex of recipient on reward allocation norm choice. Male and female college students worked on a sex-neutral, attributionally ambiguous task. Subjects participated in same- and mixed-sex dyads, but were kept isolated from one another. All received feedback that they had contributed higher input than their partner and had been randomly chosen to apportion a group reward. The primary dependent variable was amount of reward allocated to self. As predicted, there was a significant difference in allocation norm choice in the no future interaction condition (with males favoring equity and females employing equality), while both sexes divided the reward equally between themselves and the coworker in the future interaction condition. A model was proposed to explain these findings in terms of a continuum of social interaction levels. Rather than being viewed as independent causal entities, sex of allocator and sex of recipient were demonstrated to play roles of differing importance as a function of the level of interaction experienced or anticipated.     

Sex differences in same- and cross-sex supportive relationships

The current study focused on sex differences in same- and cross-sex supportive relationships. Subjects, 249 female and 103 male volunteers, completed a questionnaire designed to assess the nature and quality of supportive relationships. Four dimensions of relationships were examined: the relative frequency and patterning of interactions, closeness, diversity of interactions, and interpersonal perception. A 2×2 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted with sex of subject as a randomized factor and sex of supporter as a repeated factor. Sixteen dependent variables measured the relationship dimensions. Results of the MANOVA suggested that there are differences between women and men in the qualities of their same- and cross-sex supportive relationships. In same-sex relationships, women have more contact when under stress; are closer; more satisfied with initiation, balance, and closeness; and perceive themselves as knowing the other and being known by the other more than do men. Women initiate more in cross-sex relationships, and want to give more than men do. Men describe cross-sex relationships as closer than women do. Both women and men want more frequent contact, closer relationships, and want to give more in cross-sex relationships than in same-sex ones. These and further results, and implications of the findings are discussed.Portions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., August 1986.     

Variations in patterns of attraction to same- and other-sex peers during early adolescence

Differences in attraction to same- and other-sex peers as a function of sex, age, individual characteristics (i.e., aggression), and context were examined in a longitudinal study of early adolescent boys and girls (N = 217) that covered the transition from elementary school (Time 1) to middle school (Times 2 and 3). Consistent with T. Moffitt's (1993) concept of the "maturity gap," attraction to aggressive peers, especially attraction to aggressive boys among girls, increased with age and upon entry to middle school, as did attraction to peers who stood out in the peer group in easily observable ways. Attraction to peers who presented features associated with good classroom-based behavior decreased. These patterns are discussed in terms of the developmental needs served by associating with particular peers.     

Self-reported proclivity to harass as a moderator of the effectiveness of sexual harassment-prevention training

The interaction between the likelihood of males engaging in sexual harassment and the effectiveness of a 1-hr. sexual harassment-prevention training was explored in a laboratory study. An interaction of scores on the Likelihood to Sexually Harass Scale and training condition for 90 undergraduate men was found, such that sexual harassment-prevention training had a small negative effect on the attitudes of males with a high proclivity to harass.     

Self-reported assessment practices of school psychologists: Implications for training and practice

This study reports the results of an investigation of the assessment views and practices of school psychologists in the United States. Results of the investigation indicated that respondents are predominantly behavioral and cognitive behavioral in orientation; spend most of their professional time in the public schools; and engage in a great deal of assessment. Behavioral assessment and projective testing occupies the greatest amount of their social-emotional assessment time. Behavioral interviewing is the most used behavioral technique, followed by behavioral observation, which is reportedly used by approximately one third of the respondents with from 41% to 100% of clients. Although most of the respondents report a preference for continuing to do approximately the same amount of the various social-emotional assessment activities as they are presently doing, very high percentages of respondents indicate that their use of behavioral assessment strategies would increase with development of published instrumentation, normative standards, and standardized out-of-setting behavioral procedures.     

A comparison of same- and cross-age interactions in mixed-age groups

This study investigated the types of interactions occurring within and between age groups in mixed-age preschool classes. Using point-time sampling procedures, the peer interactions of 30 3- to 5-year-old preschool children enrolled in two preschool classes were recorded. Interactions were coded according to six categories and according to the role of the target child in the interaction. Contrary to popular assumptions about interactions in mixed-age groups, results indicated that for both the older and younger children the types of interactions occurring across age groups did not differ significantly from interactions within same-age groups. Symmetrical rather than asymmetrical relationships across age groups were found in the exchange of nurturance, direction and information.     

Perceptions of the importance of training,experience, and athletic talent for achievement in sports

Ratings by 97 NCAA Division I athletes showed belief that successful athletes benefit more from training and experience and athletic talent than less successful athletes.     

Sex role perceptions and social anxiety in opposite-sex and same-sex situations

The relationship between perceived sex role characteristics and self-rated anxiety and self-efficacy in both opposite-sex and same-sex interactions was evaluated. Forty-five male and 45 female undergraduates were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory, and male or female versions of the Survey of Heterosexual Interactions, the Interpersonal Interaction Survey, and a Same Sex Interaction Inventory developed for the study. For both male and female subjects, reported discomfort in both opposite-sex and same-sex situations was significantly negatively related to masculinity, and unrelated to femininity. Congruently, self-efficacy ratings were positively related to masculinity and unrelated to femininity. Androgynous and masculine subjects did not differ in reported social discomfort or self-efficacy in either type of situation. These results suggest that social difficulties are associated with a deficit in some of the characteristics associated with the masculine sex role and add to a growing body of literature finding that only masculinity is associated with mental health and adjustment. Ratings in opposite-sex and in same-sex situations were strongly correlated with each other for both male and female subjects, suggesting that dating anxiety may be part of a broader pattern of social difficulty for both men and women.This report is based on part of a doctoral dissertation submitted by the author to the State University of New York at Stony Brook. The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the members of the dissertation committee: Marvin Goldfried, Ruth Hamill, Marcia Johnson, and John M. Neale, and the assistance of Cory Newman and Mike Peters in data collection.     

The relationship of same- and cross-gender work pairs to staff performance and supervisor leadership in residence hall units

This seven campus study found that whether men and women resident assistants report to a hall director of their same or different gender makes no difference in their view of supervisory leadership, satisfaction with the leader, overall job satisfaction, or motivation to extra effort.This research was supported in part by a grant from the Center for Educational Research and Development in the College of Education and the Computer Science Center at the University of Maryland College Park.     

Differences between Saudi and U.S. students in reaction to same- and mixed-sex intimacy shown by others

U.S. and Saudi male and female students were shown 3 photos of 2 women sitting at a close, intermediate, and far distance from each other. Participants were then asked to imagine 2 sisters, 2 brothers, and a brother-sister team sitting at each of these 3 distances and to rate their comfort or discomfort with each scene. As predicted, the U.S. students felt more comfortable the farther away 2 brothers were sitting and the closer a brother and sister were sitting, whereas the Saudi students showed the opposite reaction. It was suggested that distances between the sexes in conservative Muslim countries is maintained even in intrafamily contact and that the aversion to public displays of male-male intimacy found in the United States and Europe does not generalize to other cultures.     

Self-reported leadership experiences in relation to inventoried social and emotional intelligence

Leadership has both social and emotional components. Social intelligence appears to tap the social component found in leadership. Recently, emotional intelligence has surfaced as a stable individual difference variable and appears to tap the emotional component of leadership. Mayer and Salovey (1993) suggested that the emotional intelligence and social intelligence constructs overlap. This study examined the power of both emotional and social intelligence to account for variance in self-reported leadership experiences. One hundred ninety-two university students completed measures of social and emotional intelligence and a measure of leadership experiences. Regression analyses showed that both social intelligence and emotional intelligence accounted for variance in leadership experiences. Although emotional intelligence was found to account for variance in leadership, it did not add unique variance beyond social intelligence. Social intelligence appears to play a principal role in leadership.     

Self-reported leadership experiences in relation to inventoried social and emotional intelligence

Leadership has both social and emotional components. Social intelligence appears to tap the social component found in leadership. Recently, emotional intelligence has surfaced as a stable individual difference variable and appears to tap the emotional component of leadership. Mayer and Salovey (1993) suggested that the emotional intelligence and social intelligence constructs overlap. This study examined the power of both emotional and social intelligence to account for variance in self-reported leadership experiences. One hundred ninety-two university students completed measures of social and emotional intelligence and a measure of leadership experiences. Regression analyses showed that both social intelligence and emotional intelligence accounted for variance in leadership experiences. Although emotional intelligence was found to account for variance in leadership, it did not add unique variance beyond social intelligence. Social intelligence appears to play a principal role in leadership.     

Self-reported stress and psychophysiological reactivity in paramedics

Background: As an important group of health care professionals, paramedics accomplish sophisticated and frequently stressful tasks.

Design: The study investigated self-reported stress burden, self-reported health status, coping strategies, personality traits and psychophysiological reactivity in paramedics.

Methods: 30 paramedics were compared with 30 professionals from other disciplines, in terms of self-reported stress, physical complaints, coping strategies, personality traits and psychophysiological reactivity during aversive visual and acoustic stimuli, and cognitive challenge. Regression analyses were performed for the prediction of stress burden and physical complaints in paramedics according to coping and personality factors.

Results: Paramedics reported lower stress and less somatic complaints, and exhibited reduced electrodermal activity and heart rate responses to experimental stimuli, as well as higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia. They indicated less negative coping strategies, reduced empathy, and higher conscientiousness and sensation seeking. Higher self-reported stress burden and more physical symptoms were associated inter alia with more negative coping strategies, less conscientiousness and lower empathy.

Conclusion: The findings support the notion of reduced self-reported stress burden, and improved general health and stress resistance in paramedics. In addition to health benefits, stress tolerance may contribute to the prevention of performance decline during situations in which health and life are at stake.     

Self-reported automaticity and irrationality in spider phobia

Spider phobic women (n = 39) and nonfearful controls (n = 41) completed a 20-item questionnaire measuring the extent to which they experience their fear reactions to spiders as automatic and irrational. For the phobic sample, therapy outcome data were also collected. Results suggest that spider phobics tend to view their attitude to spiders as irrational and in this respect, they do not differ from control subjects. Furthermore, compared to control subjects, phobics more often perceive their responses to spiders as automatic, i.e., not under intentional control. Contrary to expectation, no robust correlation was found between automaticity and irrationality. Interestingly, automaticity was not related to treatment outcome, while irrationality to some extent predicted therapy outcome (i.e., the more phobics experienced their fear as irrational, the more they profited from exposure treatment).     

Perceived parental behaviours and motivational processes among adolescent athletes in intensive training centres: A profile approach

Parental behaviours influence athletes’ psychological functioning in different ways. To date, research has typically explored parental behaviours one by one, and few papers have simultaneously considered sets of parental behaviours. The objectives of this study were to: (a) identify parental behaviours using a person-centred approach and differentiating mother’s and father’s behaviours; (b) explore the changes of parental behaviour profiles across the season; and (c) examine the prospective impact of parental behaviour profiles at the beginning of the season on athlete scores of motivation, satisfaction, and frustration of basic psychological needs at the end of the season. A longitudinal two-wave measurement design (beginning and end of a season) was used in the study. A sample of 226 French athletes completed self-reported questionnaires: (a) at the beginning and end of the season to measure the behaviours of their parents; and (b) at the end of the season to assess their motivation, satisfaction, and frustration of basic psychological needs. Latent profile transition analysis revealed three parental behaviour profiles: (a) moderate parental involvement; (b) moderate to high parental involvement; and (c) moderate mother’s involvement and low father’s involvement. The profiles were based on associated patterns of four mother’s and father’s behaviours: (a) directive behaviours; (b) active involvement; (c) praise and understanding; and (d) pressure. The three parental behaviour profiles remained stable across the season (i.e., inter- and intra-individual stability). Athletes who reported the moderate parental involvement profile at the beginning of the season had lower scores of controlled motivation and frustration of autonomy as well as higher scores of satisfaction of competence and relatedness at the end of the season than their counterparts from the two other profiles. This study contributes to enriching the complex picture of parental involvement in the sport to help sport organisations identify parents at risk of impeding their child’s development.     

Similarity and difference in the processing of same- and other-race faces as revealed by eye tracking in 4- to 9-month-olds

Fixation duration for same-race (i.e., Asian) and other-race (i.e., Caucasian) female faces by Asian infant participants between 4 and 9 months of age was investigated with an eye-tracking procedure. The age range tested corresponded with prior reports of processing differences between same- and other-race faces observed in behavioral looking time studies, with preference for same-race faces apparent at 3 months of age and recognition memory differences in favor of same-race faces emerging between 3 and 9 months of age. The eye-tracking results revealed both similarity and difference in infants’ processing of own- and other-race faces. There was no overall fixation time difference between same race and other race for the whole face stimuli. In addition, although fixation time was greater for the upper half of the face than for the lower half of the face and trended higher on the right side of the face than on the left side of the face, face race did not impact these effects. However, over the age range tested, there was a gradual decrement in fixation time on the internal features of other-race faces and a maintenance of fixation time on the internal features of same-race faces. Moreover, the decrement in fixation time for the internal features of other-race faces was most prominent on the nose. The findings suggest that (a) same-race preferences may be more readily evidenced in paired comparison testing formats, (b) the behavioral decline in recognition memory for other-race faces corresponds in timing with a decline in fixation on the internal features of other-race faces, and (c) the center of the face (i.e., the nose) is a differential region for processing same- versus other-race faces by Asian infants.     

Integrating technology in psychological skills training for performance optimization in elite athletes: A systematic review

ObjectivesThe aim of the current study was to systematically review the literature on the integration of technology in psychological skills training (PST) to optimize elite athletes’ performance.DesignSystematic review.MethodPublished English, Italian, and Russian language articles were identified using electronic databases. Eighteen articles (out of 3753 records) fulfilled the inclusion criteria, and their quality was assessed using the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Six papers were judged to be excellent and four to be high quality. There were significant methodological inconsistencies across eight studies. An overall score of quality assessment ranged from 20% to 100%.ResultsThe included studies implemented various technologies, in combination with PST, to identify, monitor and/or have an intervention aimed at optimizing elite athletes' performance. The results suggested that the integration covered different meanings, i.e., functional integration, integration between technologies and measures, integration between technology, theoretical framework, and psychological skills training. There was no distinct consistency between the studies with regards to the theory or model used.ConclusionsTechnology and mental training should not be viewed as interchangeable facets of performance enhancement, but rather as complementary ones – where technology integrated in psychological skills training can lead to identify and monitor optimal performance and to implement more effective interventions.     

Too close for comfort: the impact of dual relationships on group therapy and group therapy training

The healing power of psychodynamically oriented therapy and training groups rests, to a large degree, upon the quality of the here and now interactions. For the work to be effective, the basic principles of analytic group work need to be followed, including the observance of no extra-group contact. Simply said, nothing leaves the room. This principle has both ethical and clinical implications. It is my premise that while some forms of outside contact between members are relatively benign, other types are not. Outside contact that is built into the fabric and context of the group may pose a risk, as may be the case where dual relationships exist between members. The impact of dual relationships between group members in the particular instance of analytic training institutes is the focus of this article. What happens to the transference in this context when members reveal too much of their personal lives to each other through dual relationships is explored. It is suggested that extra-group contact can disrupt the balance between reality and transference distortion in group interactions in at least three ways: (a) "The Emperor's New Clothes" effect, (b) looping, and (c) gaslighting. Vignettes are presented to illustrate these phenomena and suggestions for reform are offered.