Predicting self‐esteem during unemployment: The effect of gender,financial deprivation,alternate roles,and social support

Two hundred and one unemployed men and women participated in a cross‐sectional study that assessed self‐esteem, financial deprivation, number of alternate roles, and use of social support. Financial deprivation, alternate roles, and social support each had a main effect on self‐esteem. In addition, these variables interacted with gender to affect self‐esteem. Specifically, financial deprivation had a greater negative association with self‐esteem in men as compared with women. In contrast, alternate roles and social support had a stronger positive relationship to self‐esteem in women than in men. The incorporation of these findings into intervention programs for unemployed persons is discussed.     

Differences between employed and unemployed alcoholic inpatients in trouble for drinking and denial

The Trouble-Due-to-Drinking scale and the Denial scale of the MMPI were administered to two groups of inpatients of low socioeconomic status, an employed group (27 men, 3 women) and an unemployed one (44 men, 12 women), at a state alcoholism facility in an inner city catchment area. The former were significantly older than the latter; Ms = 40.4 and 35.5 yr., respectively. The Trouble scale correctly identified 98% of the unemployed group but only 83% of the employed group. The unemployed scored significantly higher on MMPI Denial and significantly lower on the Trouble scale than the unemployed. The Pearson r between scores on the two measures was negative and significant for the combined sample and for the unemployed as well, whereas r for the unemployed was negative but nonsignificant. It was concluded that the unemployed group was less given to the use of denial and had encountered more alcohol-related problems than the employed group.     

The measurement of vocational maturity in adults

This investigation was designed to develop a measure of vocational maturity in adults. An Adult Vocational Maturity Inventory was constructed so that its items would reflect on the respondents past vocational decisions. The inventory was then administered to 200 unemployed men, 100 vocational trainees, and 100 graduate students. The total sample was equally divided into item analysis and cross-validation groups. Based on an analyses of the scores for the cross-validation group, the graduate students had the highest level of vocational maturity, the unemployed men had the lowest, and the vocational trainees fell in between the other two. Results of this study lent support for the hypothesis that vocational maturity can be quantitatively measured in adults. Evidence was also given in support of vocational choice theorists who have suggested that occupational maturity can continue into later life stages than adolescence.     

Social Support, Social Undermining, and Coping in Underemployed and Unemployed Persons

Participants (94 unemployed, 77 underemployed) were administered scales tapping social support, social undermining, coping, and distress. We hypothesised that the unemployed would exhibit less social support but more social undermining and distress than the underemployed; females would report more social support but less social undermining; social support would better predict coping than social undermining; social undermining would better predict distress than social support. The unemployed reported less social support, more distress, and poorer coping. Males reported less social support and more emotion-focused coping. Social support significantly predicted distress and coping. No group or gender differences were identified for social undermining, which did not predict distress or coping. We discuss the role of social undermining and distress in the unemployed.     

The psychological health of employed and unemployed recent graduates as a function cognitive appraisal and of coping

In the literature on the effects of unemployment on graduates two competing hypothesis have found support. On one hand graduates have higher expectations about status and occupational identity, hence being unemployed should be more distressing. On the other hand graduates have access to more personal and situational resources and should cope better with the stress of unemployment. In a study of 181 recent graduates it was found that those who were employed (n = 88) scored higher on both somatization and interpersonal sensitivity than those who were unemployed (n = 93). A large percentage also reported not being in the job to which they aspired and scored low on job commitment. The unemployed graduates had a more positive approach to problem-solving, higher achievement motivation, more perceived social support, were more assertive, and felt less hopeless than their employed peers. They also engaged in more constructive leisure activities than the employed group. The data provide tentative support for the hypothesis that graduates are better at coping with unemployment. However the indication is that any advantage to be gained is relative to the type of job occupied by the employed group to whom they are compared. The general conclusion is that opting for a job which does not meet expectations or aspirations may be more psychologically damaging in the short term than being unemployed and hopeful. This is a function of the individual's vulnerability or resistance to stress and highlights the need for graduates to be prepared more effectively for the path to a career.     

The Impact of Gender and Age on Attitudes and Reactions to Unemployment: The Israeli Case

The research examined the impact of gender and age on attitudes and reactions to joblessness among 613 unemployed individuals in Israel (aged 21–60 years). With regard to ethnicity, most of the participants were born in Israel and the remainder were evenly distributed between Europe–America and Asia–Africa. The majority of participants had at least secondary education. On the whole, results indicated that both gender and age had significant effects, but did not interact. Furthermore, there was little significant interaction between marital status and gender. Despite recent changes in women's orientations toward work, gender differences are still evident in relation to unemployment: (1) women tend to reject jobs more readily than men on the basis of job content, working conditions, conflicts between job requirements and family obligations, and masculine-typed work, and (2) men tend to devote more time per week to job hunting. As these differences are not age related and are partly independent of marital status, it can be argued that they stem from generalized social expectations regarding gender roles (men as breadwinners and women as responsible for the home) to which unemployed men and women adjust themselves even before they actually fill these roles. In addition, the following age differences were apparent: (1) middle-aged unemployed reported spending more time looking for work than did members of the younger groups, (2) the youngest group saw advantages in unemployment in that it left them time to devote to themselves and also reported the least deterioration in health as a result of unemployment, and (3) young people were more likely to believe that others have no respect for the unemployed, yet preferred to be out of work than to accept a low-paying job.     

On the scrap‐heap at 45: The human impact of mature‐aged unemployment

This paper reports on a qualitative study conducted in Adelaide, South Australia into the impact of mature‐aged unemployment and under‐employment on the individual. Data were collected by means of six individual and group interviews with a total of 27 participants (17 men and 10 women). The participants were asked about the impact on their quality of life, their expectations for the future and their short‐term and long‐term financial situation. The results suggest that there is a substantial ‘lost generation’ of mature‐aged unemployed people who are characterized by shrinking horizons and impaired quality of life. The participants expressed frustration at being unable to contribute to society and support their own adult children. Inability to use their skills and talents, with consequent skill depreciation, can lead to what we label the ‘peg‐down phenomenon’, an intermediate step between becoming unemployed and entering the ranks of the discouraged job‐seekers that ultimately leads to a premature exit from the workforce. This cohort is different from other age groups of unemployed people because of the unique developmental characteristics of middle‐aged people, compounded by financial and caring demands from both the younger and older generations. The paper concludes with policy recommendations, including expanding social inclusion policies to address the needs of this cohort and early intervention with more focused job‐specific training.     

Self-reported physical aggression among young men

This article describes two studies involving a questionnaire asking about the circumstances, antecedents, and consequences of the most recent fight among samples of young men (100 students in Study I; 88 students and 87 unemployed men in Study II). In Study I, the students alos completed a standard aggression questionnaire and one concerning masculine values to assess whether measures of physical aggressiveness were associated with traditional masculine role norms. There was a weak association with physical aggressiveness but not with reported fights. Students with traditionally masculine interests did report more fights. In Study II, both subsamples showed significant correlations between a masculine role subscale involving toughness from this study were primarily assessed in relation to hyphotheses derived from Darwinian sexual selection theory: that fights between young men are likely to arise from threats to personal integrity and status, women, and resoureces; that fights will be more related to social status and be more damageing among the unemployed men than the students. In line with these predictions, insults were a potent cause of fights in both samples, but public humiliation was a more common reason among the unemployed men, Money or property was more often a reason for fighting among the unemployed men also showed higher levels of anger and physical aggression (but not verbal aggression) on a standard aggression questionnaire. Other differences included the location of the fight, but there were no significant differences between the two samples in whether or not a fight had occured in the last 5 years. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Men without jobs: Some correlates of age and length of unemployment

Measures of reported health change, financial stress, financial strain, and commitment to the labour market were used with a sample of 954 unemployed working-class men, selected to cover equally all levels of age and several levels of length of unemployment. It was found that psychological deterioration, financial stress and strain, and labour market commitment were greatest among middle-aged unemployed men. Deterioration in health and degree of financial strain were found to be greater among men unemployed for longer periods in contrast with those who had more recently become unemployed, but no association was observed between length of unemployment and the measures of financial stress and commitment to the labour market. The probability of having an employed wife was found to be negatively associated with length of unemployment, consistent with the operation of a household strategy for income maintenance.     

The Influence of Gender on Job Loss Coping Behavior Among Unemployed Managers

Using the Job Loss Coping Behavior scale (JLCB; Leana & Feldman, 1992), this article examines the behaviors of 131 unemployed male and female managers in coping with their Job loss. The results indicate that the men had significantly higher job search efficacy. The article's findings suggest that women may need more help in identifying a network of colleagues and friends to assist with then-Job search activities than men. The authors encourage employment counselors to be mindful of this finding and to help unemployed women to develop more appropriate proactive behaviors and skills that will assist them with their Job search activities.     

Effects of chronic unemployment and acute psychological stress on sexual arousal in men

Effects on sexual arousal of unemployment and acute stress were studied in men. Ten unemployed (high-chronic-stress) and 9 employed (low-chronic-stress) men were exposed to two erotic videotapes in the laboratory. Acute stress was induced by telling the men that they would have to give a talk on their own sexual behavior and fantasies. Half the men were told about the talk before seeing either erotic tape, the other half were told in between the two erotic tapes. Cardiovascular measures confirmed the stressful nature of this manipulation. Results showed that the unemployed men achieved less penile tumescence than the employed men when stressed prior to erotic stimulation. Presentation of the stressor between the erotic videotapes (after sexual arousal occurred) produced no differences between the employed and unemployed men. These results suggest that impairment of erection occurs as a result of a combination of chronic and acute stress.     

Activity during unemployment and mental health

The main purpose of this study was to investigate activity during unemployment and the relationship between such activity and mental health in a sample ( n = 213) of unemployed Norwegians. The results indicate that the unemployed are generally more passive than the average population, and that they are considerably less involved in social activities. However, the unemployed do not constitute a homogenous group in terms of activity level and activity profile. Women were somewhat more active that men, particularly in connection with domestic chores. Young people were more active than the other age groups, particularly in connection with extra-familial activities. Several significant relationships were found between different activity categories and mental health. The more active the unemployed were, the better their mental health. The results are discussed in relation to similar data for the average population, other unemployment research, subjective and objective factors which can be of importance to the activity level and profile of the unemployed, sex role issues, theoretical models developed to explain and understand the effects of unemployment, methodological considerations, and the possible functions of activity for mental health.     

F?rderung der Gesundheit und der psychosozialen Selbstwirksamkeit bei Langzeitarbeitslosen

Background

The development of appropriate preventive measures aimed at the promotion of psychosocial capabilities and health behavior is based on the recognition that unemployment is associated with many physical, psychological and social problems.

Objective

A group program ??promotion of health and psychosocial self-efficacy in long-term unemployed?? was developed and investigated with respect to the effectiveness by a study group at the Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine of the University of Rostock. The study was part of a project funded by the European Social Fund (ESF).

Methods

During the period from October 2009 to April 2010 the group program was implemented in 5 different groups and the sample included a total of 35 persons. To examine the effectiveness of the program the participants had to complete standardized questionnaires at the beginning and at the end of the program. Information as to what extent the unemployed suffer from mental stress was collected via the brief symptom inventory (BSI; Franke 2000). The questionnaire on resources and self-management skills (FERUS; Jack 2007) was applied to analyze the capabilities and the self-management skills of the participants.

Results

The unemployed subjects reported lower levels of aggressiveness and paranoid thinking (distrust) after their participation in the program. Regarding the self-management skills the participants improved their coping skills, self-instructions skills and also felt more hopeful with regard to their current environment and the future.

Conclusions

A systematic support of unemployed people regarding coping with the psychosocial problems associated with unemployment seemed to be important. The use of low structured group programs is a good possibility to implement them in different contexts with relatively few resources.     

The Effects of Social Support on Self‐Esteem,Self‐Efficacy,and Job Search Efficacy in the Unemployed

This study attempted to determine the effects of family and social support on the self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy of the unemployed. A total of 117 surveys were collected in Nevada, Idaho, and Oregon measuring self‐esteem, general self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy and social support. Pearson correlation coefficients demonstrated moderately strong positive relationships between social support and self‐esteem, general self‐efficacy, and job search self‐efficacy. Social and family support had a stronger influence on the self‐perceptions of men than women.     

Procrastination's Impact in the Workplace and the Workplace's Impact on Procrastination

Procrastination is a self‐regulatory failure, whose costs are debated. Here, we establish its impact in the workplace. Using an Internet sample, we assessed 22,053 individuals in terms of their sex, employment status, employment duration, income, occupational attainment and level of procrastination. High levels of procrastination is associated with lower salaries, shorter durations of employment, and a greater likelihood of being unemployed or under employed rather than working full‐time. Also, procrastination partially mediates sex's relationship with these work variables. Women tend to procrastinate less than men, evidently giving women an employment advantage. If women procrastinated the same as men, there should be 1.5 million fewer women in full‐time employment in the US. alone. Determining the causes of procrastination in the workplace, we also examined it at an occupational level. The results strongly support the gravitational hypothesis: jobs that require higher levels of motivational skills are less likely to retain procrastinators. However, there was some support that jobs can foster procrastination. Procrastinators tend to have jobs that are lower in intrinsically rewarding qualities.     

Unemployment and self-conception: A symbolic interactionist analysis

A symbolic interactionist analysis of the relationship between unemployment and self-conception was tested using a cross-sectional questionnaire design (n = 88). Job loss had significant negative associations with reflected appraisals (perceived evaluations) from friends, family, employers, unemployed people and people in general. Significant relationships between reflected appraisals and the evaluative, consistency and involvement dimensions of self-concept were also observed. Consistent with symbolic interactionist theory, path analysis showed that reflected appraisals mediated the relationship between employment status and self-conception. Unemployment duration and gender both moderated the effects of reflected appraisal upon self-conception such that reflected appraisals were associated with different self-concept dimensions for unemployed men versus unemployed women and ‘shorter’ versus ‘longer-term’ unemployed people. Results are discussed in the context of recent developments in the social psychology of the self-concept. Suggestions for future research are outlined.     

the questionable impact of gender on job loss reactions: implications for employment counseling

A heterogeneous sample of 301 men and 118 women who experienced job loss was surveyed on 4 affective and 14 attributional variables. Analysis revealed that approximately 90% of the reported gender differences involving job loss reactions disappeared when age, ethnic background, marital status, education, tenure, salary job classification, and financial strain were controlled. Resulting gender differences do not support traditional stereotypes of unemployed women nor do they support previous findings of gender‐related job loss reactions.     

Unemployment experiences in context: A phenomenological study in two townships in South Africa

This study aimed to explore the unemployment experience of residents of a historically disadvantaged South African neighbourhood. Informants were twelve black community members (females?=?75%; age ranges: 20 to 29?=?58.3%, and 30 to 39?=?33.3%). Individual interviews were conducted with the participants. Thematic analysis of the data revealed that participants valued employment despite their present unemployment. They indicated that being unemployed is a painful experience, but that they also held an optimistic view of a future in which they would have employment. The findings further suggest that diminished social support by the community and public social welfare agencies aggravate negative experiences of unemployment. Employment support programmes are needed to connect the unemployed to job networks; as well as to empower those who are unemployed to fulfil their positive work participation expectations.     

Coping Mechanisms of Unemployed African Men with Dependents

The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the efficiency of the coping mechanisms of 82 unemployed African men with dependents. Results revealed significant relationships between perceived stress and stressful life events, as well as between perceived stress and four groups of coping mechanisms, the strongest relationships being reported for stressful life events, psychological coping resources, and family resources. Only four of the fifteen identified coping mechanisms could reduce the relationship between stressful life events and perceived stress. These were an internal locus of control, extended family social support, mastery and health within the family, and the utilization of community resources.     

Short form of Sarason's Social Support Questionnaire: French adaptation and validation

The original short form of Sarason's Social Support Questionnaire measures two dimensions of social support, availability and satisfaction. The factorial structure of the social support was assessed in a French sample along with the association between the dimensions of social support and personality traits such as Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Depression. A 6-item French version was administered to 648 subjects: 348 university freshmen (228 females, 120 males) and 304 unemployed men. A principal component analysis followed by oblique rotations was undertaken on each sample. This yielded two factors, Availability and Satisfaction. These results sustained the stability of the factorial structure from one culture to another. Validity and reliability were satisfactory. Moreover, these two dimensions were correlated with two personality scales (high extraversion, low depression). Such results agree with previous results establishing relations between social support and salutogenic dimensions of personality.