A study of group phase development and emergent leadership

A theoretical model of developmental phases and emergent leaders in psychotherapy is presented in this paper. The model forms the basis for a research program aimed at the design of a methodology which will empirically identify phase processes and boundaries and emerging, differentiated leadership. Nine phases have been identified in the development of group structure as well as four major leadership roles which include task, emotional, scapegoat and defiant leaders.Ariadne P. Beck is in private practice in Chicago, Illinois.     

A Kleinian analysis of group development

Various theoretical models have been used to study stages of group development. This paper analyzes the early phases of a therapy group using Melanie Klein's theory of developmental positions. In discussing the underlying forces that contribute to the evolution of the group, a special emphasis is placed on Klein's concept of projective identification and Bion's containment model.     

Using dream interpretation to resolve group developmental impasses

This paper focuses on the use of dream interpretation in psychoanalytic group psychotherapy. One of the goals of the paper is to demonstrate that the kinds of dreams, manifestly about the group, offered at various points in the life history of the group, are influenced by, and, in turn, influence developmental phases in group. Dream interpretation also helps the therapist to identify emerging developmental themes in the group-as-a-whole as well as illuminate developmental impasses and resistances of the group. The second goal of this paper is to demonstrate how interpretations of these dreams can help lessen resistance and help the group to resolve the impasse. The paper first reviews some basic principles and approaches to dream interpretation in a group setting and then elucidates typical phases in group development. Two extended case examples are presented to illustrate how dream interpretation may be utilized to help the group move beyond the impasse.     

Screening for Psychotherapy by an Open-Ended Group

A developmental model of conducting a time-limited, short-term inpatient psychotherapy group is described. The therapist's primary goal in this model is to promote members' awareness of their dysfunctional interpersonal behaviors and the conflicts underlying these behaviors. The therapist pursues this goal by facilitating the group in resolving the conflicts of the four phases through which the group passes. In Phase I, the group addresses conflicts related to the establishment of trust. In Phase II, issues related to dependency wishes focused upon authority figures occupy the group's attention. In Phase III, conflicts within peer relation-ships become focal. In Phase IV as the group approaches termination, group members explore feelings related to the acceptance of loss. For each phase, optimal therapist interventions are described.     

Neighborhood Contextual Factors and Early-Starting Antisocial Pathways

This paper examines research investigating the effects of neighborhood context on the onset and persistence of early-starting antisocial pathways across middle and late childhood. The review begins by presenting theory and research mapping the early-starting developmental pathway. Next, sociologically and psychologically based investigations linking neighborhood context and early antisocial behavior are examined, in order to posit and evaluate the effects of community economic disadvantage, exposure to neighborhood violence, and involvement with neighborhood-based deviant peer groups on the development of antisocial behavior. It is suggested that middle childhood may represent a critical developmental period during which children are at heightened risk for neighborhood-based effects on antisocial behavior problems. Key methodological issues are addressed, and recommendations for future research integrating developmental pathways and neighborhood theory and research are advanced.     

Toy-oriented changes during early arm movements IV: shoulder-elbow coordination

Our recent work on the initial emergence of reaching identified a mosaic of developmental changes and consistencies within the hand and joint kinematics of arm movements across the pre-reaching period. The purpose of this study was to test hypotheses regarding the coordination of hand and joint kinematics over this same pre-reaching period. Principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on hand, shoulder, and elbow kinematic data from 15 full-term infants observed biweekly from 8 weeks of age through the week of reach onset. Separate PCAs were calculated for spatial variables and for velocity variables in trials with a toy and without a toy. From the PCA results, we constructed ‘variance profiles’ to reflect the coordinative structure of the hand, shoulder, and elbow. By coordinative structure is meant here the relative contribution of each joint to the factors revealed by the PCA. Shifts in these profiles, which reflected coordination changes, were compared across the hand and joints within each pre-reaching phase (Early, Mid, Late) as well as across phases and trial conditions (no-toy and toy). Results identified both surprising consistencies and important developmental changes in coordination. First, over development, spatial coordination changed in different ways for the shoulder and elbow. Between the Early and Late phases, spatial coordination at the shoulder showed more adult-like coordination during both spontaneous movements and movements with a toy present. In contrast, elbow spatial coordination became more adult-like only during movements with a toy and less adult-like during spontaneous movements. Second, over development, velocity coordination became more adult-like at both joints in movements with and without a toy present. We propose that the features of coordination that changed over development suggest explanations for the differential roles and developmental trajectories of the control of arm movements between the shoulder and elbow. We propose that features that remained consistent over development suggest the presence of developmentally important constraints inherent in arm biomechanics, which may simplify arm control for reaching. Taken together, these findings highlight the critical role of spontaneous arm movements in the emergence of purposeful reaching.     

Cognitive ego psychology and the psychotherapy of learning disorders

The single most common referral problem in middle childhood and adolescence is academic underachievement and learning failure. Yet, the term “learning disorder” lacks specificity as a diagnostic entity and offers no guidelines for psychotherapy. An appreciation of the developmental processes by which the undifferentiated, unstructured, self-less and objectless newborn becomes a more fully developed, self-sufficient individual, capable of adaptive functioning and formal academic learning is encompassed in contemporary psychoanalytic conceptions of the separation-individuation process. This theory provides an organizing, theoretical base for diagnosis and treatment of learning disorders. Based on these conceptions, we discuss therapeutic techniques which are appropriate to the level of developmental arrest at each of the phases of the separation-individuation process.     

Level of Perceptual Development as Reflected in Responses to the Holtzman Inkblot Technique

To investigate the relationships between chronological age and scores on 10 variables from the Holtzman Inkblot Technique, 586 normal Ss comprising five criterion age-groups ranging from 5.2 to 19.5 years were tested. Each group had an equal number of males and females. Following a statistical correction for number of rejections, a sex-by-age analysis of variance revealed no significant sex differences or sex-by-age interactions. However, significant age-group differences were found for all 10 variables, six of them resulting in steadily increasing means across the five groups. These age trends are consistent with the sequence of perceptual change outlined by developmental theory, and are interpreted as indicating a developmental shift in the dominance of perceptual functions.     

Profiles of bystanders' motivation to defend school bully victims from a self‐determination perspective

This study was aimed at exploring which latent profiles emerge based on ratings of self‐determined motivation to defend victims of bullying, and to explore if they are related to bystander roles and victimization in bullying, as well as student–teacher relations. Data were collected from 1,800 Swedish and Italian students, with an age range between 10 and 18 years (M = 12.6, standard deviation = 1.74). The students completed a survey in their classrooms. Latent profile analysis was used to explore the possible clusters of individuals with similar ratings on the motivational variables. Multivariate analysis of variances were conducted to explore differences between the profiles in relation to their roles when witnessing bullying and to student–teacher relationships. Four latent profiles emerged. The profiles represented respondents (a) high in prosocial motivation, (b) high in externally extrinsic motivation, (c) intermediate in externally extrinsic motivation, and (d) with identified/introjected motivation. Multivariate analyses showed that reports of bystander roles when witnessing bullying, teacher–student relationships, and bullying victimization, significantly differed over the motivational profiles. The bystanders were unevenly distributed across the four groups and most individuals were categorized in the prosocial motivation group. Female and male bystanders were evenly distributed across clusters. The prosocial motivation group experienced victimization to a lesser extent than the other profile groups. Students in the intermediate externally extrinsic group were more likely to take the pro‐bully and outsider role during bullying. Concerning student–teacher relationships, the prosocial motivation group reported the closest relationships with their teachers, while the intermediate externally extrinsic group reported the most conflictual relationships.     

Classifying emotion: a developmental account

The aim of this paper is to propose a systematic classification of emotions which can also characterize their nature. The first challenge we address is the submission of clear criteria for a theory of emotions that determine which mental phenomena are emotions and which are not. We suggest that emotions as a subclass of mental states are determined by their functional roles. The second and main challenge is the presentation of a classification and theory of emotions that can account for all existing varieties. We argue that we must classify emotions according to four developmental stages: 1. pre-emotions as unfocussed expressive emotion states, 2. basic emotions, 3. primary cognitive emotions, and 4. secondary cognitive emotions. We suggest four types of basic emotions (fear, anger, joy and sadness) which are systematically differentiated into a diversity of more complex emotions during emotional development. The classification distinguishes between basic and non-basic emotions and our multi-factorial account considers cognitive, experiential, physiological and behavioral parameters as relevant for constituting an emotion. However, each emotion type is constituted by a typical pattern according to which some features may be more significant than others. Emotions differ strongly where these patterns of features are concerned, while their essential functional roles are the same. We argue that emotions form a unified ontological category that is coherent and can be well defined by their characteristic functional roles. Our account of emotions is supported by data from developmental psychology, neurobiology, evolutionary biology and sociology.     

The Evolutionary Role of Interorganizational Communication: Modeling Social Capital in Disaster Contexts

Employing a community ecology perspective, this study examines how interorganizational (IO) communication and social capital (SC) facilitated organizational recovery after Hurricane Katrina. In‐depth interviews with 56 New Orleans organizations enabled longitudinal analysis and a grounded theory model that illustrates how communication differentiated four phases of recovery: personal emergency, professional emergency, transition, rebuilding. Communicative action taking place across phases corresponds with the evolutionary mechanisms. Most organizations did not turn to interorganizational relationships (IORs) until the transitional phase, during which indirect ties were critical and incoming versus outgoing communication was substantively different. Organizations did not consistently use IO SC until the last phase. This study underlines the fact that organizations and their systems are fundamentally human and (re)constructed through communicative action.     

Competence, Risk, and Resilience in Military Families: Conceptual Commentary

This commentary highlights conceptual themes in the opening section of this special issue on military families in relation to a new synthesis of developmental systems theory that emerged from developmental, ecological, and family systems theory, as well as developmental psychopathology and risk/resilience frameworks. Articles in this special issue draw on these concepts to characterize and guide the burgeoning research on military families. This perspective emphasizes that multiple dynamic systems interact across levels to shape individual development, as well as the function of families and military units. Developmental timing is important for understanding how challenges of military life may impact individuals and families. Cascade effects are noted, where stress experienced by one family or service member can influence the function of other individuals or larger systems. Capacity for resilience is distributed across systems, including families and cultures, as well as resources or supports provided by military organizations to foster adaptive responses or recovery. These systems include schools and educational programs that play key roles in fostering and supporting resilience for children. Overall, developmental system concepts have considerable utility for guiding research with military families, particularly in regard to promoting resilience. Moreover, lessons learned from military families and programs may have much broader implications for many other nonmilitary children, families, and organizations that share similar goals and challenges.     

Thinking Developmentally in Child and Adult Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis in theory and clinical practice is a developmental domain. Psychoanalysts think about their patients from a developmental point of view. The analytic relationship promotes development in both analyst and patient. Two concepts central to this author’s developmental point of view are epigenetics—as used in biology and philosophy—and that of the analyst as “developmental object.” Optimally, the analyst as developmental object facilitates what Rita Tähkä terms the “developmental illusion,” which intersubjectively transforms psychic structures, enabling alternatives to the repetition compulsion. Two vignettes with adult patients illustrate how empathic intimacy in psychoanalysis with an emphasis on latency and toddler phases as reconstructed in adult analysis presaged psychic growth. Transference as a vehicle for a developmental history taking is also considered.     

Children's intuitive sense of number develops independently of their perception of area,density, length,and time

Young children can quickly and intuitively represent the number of objects in a visual scene through the Approximate Number System (ANS). The precision of the ANS – indexed as the most difficult ratio of two numbers that children can reliably discriminate – is well known to improve with development: whereas infants require relatively large ratios to discriminate number, children can discriminate finer and finer changes in number between toddlerhood and early adulthood. Which factors drive the developmental improvements in ANS precision? Here, we investigate the influence of four non‐numeric dimensions – area, density, line length, and time – on ANS development, exploring the degree to which the ANS develops independently from these other dimensions, from inhibitory control, and from domain‐general factors such as attention and working memory that are shared between these tasks. A sample of 185 children between the ages of 2 and 12 years completed five discrimination tasks: approximate number, area, density, length, and time. We report three main findings. First, logistic growth models applied to both accuracy and Weber fractions (w; an index of ANS precision) across age reveal distinct developmental trajectories across the five dimensions: while area and length develop by adolescence, time and density do not develop fully until early adulthood, with ANS precision developing at an intermediate rate. Second, we find that ANS precision develops independently of the other four dimensions, which in turn develop independently of the ANS. Third, we find that ANS precision also develops independently from individual differences in inhibitory control (indexed as the difference in accuracy and w between Congruent and Incongruent ANS trials). Together, these results are the first to provide evidence for domain‐specific improvements in ANS precision, and place children's maturing perception of number, space, and time into a broader developmental context.     

Some Implications of Recent Research in Social and Developmental Psychology for Counseling Practice

Blocher sees four implications for counseling as a result of the additions to research and theory building of social, developmental, and general psychology. From social influence theory, from cognitive, behavioral, humanistic, and developmental research (and their hyphenated combinations) he offers a prototype “systematic eclectic” task-model directed toward implications (1) counseling is a social influence process, (2) counseling centers on the client's cognitive activity, (3) a major variable in the outcome of counseling is the level of the client's cognitive development, and (4) counselors may need intervention programs to raise cognitive levels.     

Intensive Gestalt Group Therapy with Schizophrenics

Abstract

Teaching group therapy is an essential aspect of graduate studies within the helping professions. Existing models discuss four basic elements required for such training: experience, observation, supervised practice, and theory. The present paper offers a model for a group therapy seminar based on these four elements and organized along developmental concepts. Clinical observations of 120 psychology students who participated in the seminar were gathered over a five-year period. Teaching techniques included supervised observation, fish-bowl, one-way mirror, and a final paper integrating theory and practice. The seminar enabled students to practice and to theorize about group processes, both as participants and as co-leaders. Seminar outcomes and conclusions are discussed.     

Group-as-a-whole systems theory and practice

Group-as-a-whole systems theory is presented and applied to the practice of group psychotherapy. The individual and the group are conceptualized as two isomorphic systems in a hierarchy of living systems. The basic component of the group-as-a-whole is its subgroups, which exist independent of individuals whose subgroup memberships may change while subgroups remain stable. Subgroups come together around similarities and separate on differences, and contain differences for the group-as-a-whole to integrate in relationship to primary and secondary goals. The primary goals of system survival and maturation take precedence over the secondary goals, which relate to the environment. Goal achievement and individual change is explained as a function of group dynamics. In a therapy group, the dynamics of each phase of group-as-a-whole development serve as a major therapeutic force. Within each member, salient developmental issues are aroused, which resonate with the issues that the group is in the process of mastering. The task of the group-as-a-whole therapist is to facilitate the developmental process at both the group and the individual level. Therapeutic interventions are designed to facilitate the discrimination and integration of information at the boundaries between systems and subsystems: within the individual member system (intrapersonal) and between individual member systems (interpersonal), within the group-as-a-whole system, within subgroups, between subgroups, and between all systems in the relevant hierarchy and their environments.     

Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: a psycholinguistic grain size theory

The development of reading depends on phonological awareness across all languages so far studied. Languages vary in the consistency with which phonology is represented in orthography. This results in developmental differences in the grain size of lexical representations and accompanying differences in developmental reading strategies and the manifestation of dyslexia across orthographies. Differences in lexical representations and reading across languages leave developmental "footprints" in the adult lexicon. The lexical organization and processing strategies that are characteristic of skilled reading in different orthographies are affected by different developmental constraints in different writing systems. The authors develop a novel theoretical framework to explain these cross-language data, which they label a psycholinguistic grain size theory of reading and its development.     

FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING IN YOUNG ADULTS AS A FUNCTION OF EDUCATION AND SEX*

The integration of formal operations in a lattice–INRC group structure was tested in young adults. For this purpose the equilibrium in balance, the combination of liquids and the conservation of motion tasks were employed. To test the possibility of differential integration because of differences in developmental history, the factors of education and sex were manipulated systematically. Thus, four groups were constituted of educated males, educated females, uneducated males, and uneducated females, forming a total of 40 subjects. The results revealed a consistent patterning of performance on the three tasks across groups and across subjects which is in disagreement with the Piagetian model. Education and sex were important factors in respect to formal thought attainment. A theory of formal thought spheres is formulated to account for the patterning obtained and the implications for further research discussed.