新《医疗广告管理办法》的立法成就与不足

采用条文比较与法理分析方法,探讨新《办法》在调整范围、广告发布主体、广告内容、审查监督机制和处罚制度等方面对旧《办法》的改进与完善;并将新《办法》置于整个医药广告法律法规体系框架之内,结合我国医疗广告实际状况,反思新《办法》的一些整体缺陷与不足。     

Women's role portrayals in magazine advertising: 1958–1983

Content analysis was used to study the changing nature of women's role portrayals. Advertisements appearing in eight general interest periodicals during November 1983 were compared with data from similar studies of magazines published during 1958 and 1970. Results indicate that current advertisements in some ways more accurately reflect the true diversity of women's social and occupational roles than do those of earlier time periods.     

Affect,Reason, and Persuasion Advertising Strategies That Predict Affective and Analytic-Cognitive Responses

Advertisements are messages designed with the goal of persuasion and can therefore be considered as ecologically valid examples of persuasive messages. The study of responses to advertisements can provide insights into the interplay of affective and analytic-cognitive aspects of the persuasion process. This study develops and tests hypotheses concerning the relationship of specific advertising strategies to affective (syncretic-cognitive) and analytic cognitive responses in the audience. Specifically, it is postulated that different advertising strategies predict different patterns of affective and analytic cognition with product involvement and other relevant variables controlled. Two hundred forty advertisements are analyzed both in terms of their strategy attributes and the reactions they evoke. Advertising strategy variables are demonstrated to account substantially for the variance in affective and analytic cognition.     

Tooth color: effects on judgments of attractiveness and age

Tooth whitening has become a very popular procedure. Advertisements for whitening products imply that whiter teeth are more attractive than yellower teeth. We tested this idea empirically by manipulating the tooth color of pictures of male and female targets. Participants' ratings of attractiveness were not influenced by tooth color. Exp. 2 yielded a negative correlation between attractiveness and age ratings: targets judged to be older were rated as less attractive. Unless whiter teeth help in some other way, e.g., improved self-esteem or confidence, it seems that tooth whitening procedures or products are not associated with increased attractiveness to others.     

The portrayal of women’s images in magazine advertisements: Goffman’s gender analysis revisited

The research objective of this paper was to study the specific behaviors mentioned above and determine what gender behavior patterns have been most prevalent in magazine advertisements in 1979 and 1991. In this research, comparisons were made regarding gender displays between the years of 1979 and 1991 with random samples of print advertisements. The basic and essential starting question of this research project is: What messages about women have been given to society through magazine advertisements? This study was intended to be a conceptual replication of Erving Gofian’s study of Gender Advertisements to see how gender images in print advertisements have changed since Goffman’s study. For this research, advertisements were analyzed the gender behavior portrayed, utilizing Goffman’s categories of decoding behavior: relative size, feminine touch, function ranking, ritualization of subordination, and licensed withdrawal. Body display and IndependencelSelf-assertiveness categories were added. Advertisements that featured human subjects were collected from 1979 and 1991 women’s popular magazines. The random sampling procedure resulted in 252 samples in 1979 magazine advertisements and 252 samples in 1991 counterparts. This research showed that few changes have been made in the images of women in magazine advertisements since Goffman’s 1979 study. The findings indicate that the images of women in 1991 advertisements did not significantly change from the images found in 1979 advertisements. However; distribution or dispersion of stereotypical portrayal of women did change. In the categories of licensed withdrawal and body display, the magazine advertisements from 1991 showed more stereotyping of women than those from 1979. Two of Goffman’s categories-Relative Size and Function Ranking-were not prevalent depictions in magazine advertisements.     

Senseless Messaging: Advertising Images of Illegal Driving and Deviant Behavior

We review messaging within automobile advertisements that normalizes and glamorizes reckless driving behavior. Our content analysis of video advertisements illustrates the use of the automobile in ways that are both illegal and dangerous. Advertisements with hazardous driving images occur more often in our sample than all other types of marketing strategies. Messages include deviance from distributional norms (atypical vehicle use); illegal or immoral driving behaviors that put others at risk; and questionable judgments on the part of manufacturers that use advertisement imagery to increase sales while assuming little of the public costs associated with accidents, injuries, and preventable fatalities on roadways.     

Potential nutrition messages in magazines read by college students

Advertisements in magazines read by 12% or more of college students enrolled in an introductory nutrition class were surveyed for hidden food and nutrition messages. Meanings were identified by categories of activities, products, and people. Less than 10% of the ads featuring people fell into food categories. Of these, more were for alcohol and supplements; fewer were for basic or extra-calorie foods. Hidden messages for females could imply beauty through fashion products, beauty aids, and supplements but with a nutrition slimming plan. Males may be receiving a subtle message that food choices do not matter, and that alcohol and supplements are desirable in everyday life.     

The impact of advertisements featuring ultra‐thin or average‐size models on women with a history of eating disorders

Previous research demonstrates that exposure to ultra‐thin media models leads to increased body image concerns amongst women (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002 ). There is emerging evidence that attractive, average‐size models do not have this negative effect and can be effective in advertising (e.g. Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004 ). The present study investigates these factors amongst women with a history of eating disorders. Participants either viewed advertisements featuring ultra‐thin, average‐size or control images. Immediately after exposure, they reported their body‐focused anxiety and rated the effectiveness of the advertisements. Whereas exposure to ultra‐thin models did not lead to increased body‐focused anxiety, exposure to average‐size models produced a relief effect, whereby women reported lower levels of body‐focused anxiety. Advertisements featuring ultra‐thin and average‐size models were equally effective. The results suggest that average‐size, attractive models could be used effectively in advertising, which may help to relieve body image concerns amongst these women. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Women as Sex Objects and Victims in Print Advertisements

This content analysis examined the depiction of women in 1,988 advertisements from 58 popular U.S. magazines. Advertisements were coded with respect to whether women were presented as sex objects and/or as victims using a scheme developed by the researchers. On average across magazines, one of two advertisements that featured women portrayed them as sex objects. Women appeared as victims in just under ten percent of the advertisements. Men’s, women’s fashion, and female adolescent magazines were more likely to portray women as sex objects and as victims than news and business, special interest, or women’s non-fashion magazines. The implications of viewing advertisements depicting women as sex objects and as victims, especially sexualized victims, are discussed.     

Selling Sex to Radio Program Directors: A Content Analysis of Radio & Records Magazine

This study was designed to examine whether radio format and musical artists' gender predict sexual content in trade advertisements geared toward radio program directors. Advertisements were coded from one of the leading music trade magazines, Radio & Records magazine, between 2002 and 2003. Results indicated that overall women artists used sexual content in trade advertisements more often and to a greater degree than did men. In some cases, advertisements in radio formats with younger demographic markets, such as pop or hip-hop, also used higher levels of sexual content. It is concluded that the organizational context of the commercial music industry helps to perpetuate status differences between women and men artists, which may then bring about a cognitive bias in the field that promotes women artists' over reliance on using sexual content in trade advertisements.     

Personal advertisements of male-to-female transsexuals,homosexual men,and heterosexuals

Transsexuals, because of their attempts at gender reversal, offer a unique opportunity to study self-presentation, social roles, and stereotypes. The present study is a content analysis of personal advertisements of male-to-female transsexuals (TM, N =99), homosexual (HoM, N =64) and heterosexual men (HM, N =99), and heterosexual women (HW, N =99). Advertisements were coded for the presence or absence of 11 characteristics either offered or sought, based on the 1984 work of Deaux and Hanna. The content of TM personal advertisements was significantly different from those of HW, HM, or HoM. TM mentioned physical characteristics and sincerity, and requested friendship most often; HoM mentioned sexuality most often; HM offered financial security and status in the form of occupation, and listed marital status most often; and HW offered personality characteristics and attractiveness most often. Several factors may contribute to the pattern of differences observed, including the fact that TM were more likely to be seeking friendship than sexual partners, in contrast to the other three groups.     

Advertising <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fantasy</Emphasis>: Consuming Passion -‘Consumed’ <Emphasis Type="Italic">Desire</Emphasis>

Advertisements (n = 400) published in Bengali periodicals in four different time periods, 1947–48, 1971–72, 1991–92 & 2008–09 drawn following a multistage sampling were analyzed to see the pattern of change in concepts associated with products. They included four categories of products/ services : Jewellery, cosmetics, garments and banking. The analysis of advertisements indicated that diverse values are associated with products that have social and cultural connotations. Through such value addition, as if consumption of these commodities provides the consumer with an opportunity to construct, maintain and communicate identity and social meanings. However, the consumer emerged not as a passive victim, but an active agent in the construction of meaning.     

Assertive Ads for Want or Should? It Depends on Consumers’ Power

Advertisements using assertive language are commonly seen in marketing communications, yet assertive language has often been shown to be ineffective in communication and even decrease compliance. Recent research began to examine factors that influence the effectiveness of assertive advertising messages, but little research has studied the potential moderating role of consumer‐related factors. The current research fills this gap by investigating the moderating role of consumers’ power. Across five studies, the authors find that for high‐power consumers, assertive ads are effective in promoting want products but ineffective in promoting should products. For low‐power consumers, however, assertive ads are effective in promoting should products but ineffective in promoting want products. Moreover, the authors show that this pattern of results is driven (mediated) by consumers’ perception of the fit between the advertising message and the advertised product. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.     

The Portrayal of Men's Family Roles in Television Commercials

This study examines the portrayal of men infamily roles, as fathers and husbands, on televisioncommercials. A content analysis of commercials airedduring football, daytime, and prime time is carried out. The sample size of characters is 944, mostof whom are middle-class, non-Hispanic whites. Men withchildren but no spouse are more likely to be shownduring football than are women with children but no spouse. Advertisements for computers andelectronics are more likely to include men with childrenbut no spouse than women with children but no spouse.Men appearing alone with children are more likely to be shown outside than women alone withchildren. Men are less likely to be portrayed cooking,cleaning, washing dishes, and shopping than women. Menwithout spouses are more likely to be shown with boys and less likely to be shown with infants thanwomen without spouses. Men are infrequently shown takingcare of a child and are never shown caring for girls.However, men are often shown teaching, reading, talking, eating, and playing with children. Tothe extent that men are shown as more involved in familylife, they still tend to depend largely on knowledge andactivities that are stereotypically male.     

Identity as a Moderator and Mediator of Communication Effects: Evidence and Implications for Message Design

Advertisements, movies, and other forms of media content have potential to change behaviors and antecedent psychological states by appealing to identity. However, the mechanisms that are responsible for persuasive effects of such content have not been adequately specified. A recently proposed model of communication effects (the prism model) advances the study of mechanisms and argues that identity can serve as both a moderator and mediator of communication effects on behavior-relevant outcomes. These intervening roles are made possible by the complex nature of identity (including multiple self-concepts and sensitivity to cues) and messages that cue the importance of and activate particular self-concepts. This article builds on development of the model by presenting empirical support based on re-analysis of an experiment in which participants viewed either a more-stigmatizing or less-stigmatizing portrayal of a recovering drug addict. In line with the model's propositions, exposure to the less-stigmatizing condition led to increases in perspective taking which then led to more acceptance (mediation by identity), while level of perspective taking also changed the effect of condition on acceptance (moderation by identity). These results provide support for the model's proposition of simultaneous intervening roles. The authors discuss implications for strategic communication research and practice.     

Gender Advertisements in Magazines Aimed at African Americans: A Comparison to Their Occurrence in Magazines Aimed at Caucasians

Advertisements from magazines aimed at AfricanAmericans were compared to ads from magazines aimedpredominantly at Whites. Over 200 magazineadvertisements were analyzed according to Goffman's(1976) rubrics of licensed withdrawal, function ranking,relative size, ritualization of subordination, femininetouch, and the family. Results indicated that the adsfrom White-oriented magazines were characterized by relatively frequent displays of licensedwithdrawal and ritualization of subordination. Thoseaimed at African Americans, however, were characterizedby more frequent portrayals of the family. Almost half of each sample were classified into another category which followed none ofGoffman's rubrics. Results are discussed in terms of thedemand characteristics implicit in gender advertisements and in terms of cultural differences in genderrole expectations.     

Images of Women’s Sexuality in Advertisements: A Content Analysis of Black- and White-Oriented Women’s and Men’s Magazines

This article represents an analysis of the sexual images of women in magazine advertisements. I examined advertisements in Black- and White-oriented, mens and womens magazines to compare the images of womens sexuality that are constructed for each specific audience. Over 600 images of women were analyzed based on seven dimensions, including function/role, relative function/authority, physical/body position, relative size/height, character traits, body view, and physical characteristics. The images of womens sexuality vary depending on the race of the intended audience and the race of the women in the advertisements. Advertisements for White audiences portray women in roles and with characteristics that suggest dependency and submissiveness, whereas advertisements for Black audiences portray women as independent and dominant. I also found that White women are objectified much more than Black women are.     

The effect of semantic and syntactic structure on verbal memory in Alzheimer's disease

This study examined the ability of 17 patients with Alzheimer's disease and 17 normal-old subjects to recall short sentences that were normal, or had a disruption in either their semantic structure, their syntactic structure, or both their semantic and syntactic structure. Results showed that sentence recall performance was affected similarly in the demented and normal-old subjects by both the syntactic and semantic structure of the sentences. The presence of either type of language structure appeared to allow both normal and demented subjects to organize strings of words into multiword chunks for more efficient memory encoding.