FACTORS INFLUENCING CANADIAN HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS' CAREER MOTIVATION

The need to prepare adolescent girls for the reality of labor market participation prompted this study investigating the factors influencing female career motivation. Questionnaires were completed by 317 female students from grades 8, 10, and 12. Four criterion variables were used to assess overall career motivation: career commitment, occupational aspirations, educational aspirations, and vocational certainty. The relation–ship between the criterion measures and a set of predictor variables (socioeconomic status, school marks, grade level, masculine/feminine trait dimensions, attitudes toward women, and marriage/family commitment) was explored. A canonical correlation analysis, used to test the relationship between the predictor and criterion variables, revealed two significant sets of relationships. First, girls who obtained higher marks in school, identified with either masculine or androgynous trait dispositions, had more liberal attitudes toward women, and were from higher socioeconomic backgrounds aspired to higher levels of education, were more highly committed to a career, and aspired to more highly prestigious occupations. The second relationship showed that older girls from a lower socioeconomic background with high commitment to marriage and a family have high career commitment and certainty about their careers, yet lower educational and occupational aspirations. The study highlights the importance of (a) examining career and family commitment independently, (b) studying the impact of psychological variables on career motivation, and (c) combining a number of factors to represent career motivation.     

College students' perceptions of mothers: Effects of maternal employment-childrearing pattern and motive for employment

This study examined primarily middle-class Caucasian college students' (n = 460) perceptions of mothers as a function of their employment-child-rearing pattern (continuous employment following 6 weeks of maternity leave, interrupted employment until the child was in first grade, or discontinued employment after the child's birth) and employment motive (fulfillment, financial, or unstated). Results showed that continuously employed compared to other mothers were perceived as less communal and were less positively evaluated. Further, continuously employed mothers were seen as less communal if their employment was for fulfillment rather than financial necessity. Inferences about the mother's perceived commitment to the maternal role help explain some of the communality findings, and perceived maternal role commitment and communality explain the evaluation findings. Discussion focuses on college students' views of normative roles and characteristics for women.     

Vocational choice and values in adolescent women

The study investigated the relationship of values, internal-external locus of control, and two career maturity variables — career planning orientation and knowledge and use of resources for planning — and the occupational aspiration of 590 adolescent women. Significant value differences were found among females who chose innovative, moderately innovative, or traditional occupations for women. The values clean, forgiving, and helpful were ranked as more important by females aspiring to traditional occupations, while the values courageous, imaginative, and independent were ranked as more important by women aspiring to innovative occupations. No significant differences were found among the three groups on locus of control and career planning orientation. The mean of knowledge and use of resources for planning was found to be significantly higher for the moderately innovative group than the traditional group. The findings of this study are used to propose the utility of values as a representation of sex-role beliefs and the use of values in self-confrontation procedures to change occupational aspirations.The author gratefully acknowledges the comments of Milton Rokeach and Robert Tolsma on an earlier draft of this article.     

College females' perceptions of adult roles and occupational fields for women

College women rated the perceived marital, emotional, and role consequences; personality characteristics; and the overall evaluation of adult female stimulus persons who varied according to maternal role, career role, and sex dominance of occupational/educational field. The data indicated that marital and emotional reward and costs were associated with both the maternal and career roles, but only the mother role was perceived to involve role problems. Moreover, the overall evaluations of the mother and career roles were more favorable than those of the nonmother and noncareer roles. In relation to occupational field, sex dominance had no effect on the perception of rewards, costs, or role problems or on the overall impression. However, the data did indicate some tendency to stereotype occupational categories as well as roles, primarily in terms of expressiveness.     

A challenge to vocational psychology: How important are aspirations in determining male career development?

Nationally representative longitudinal data on 1394 employed white men aged 15 to 24 in 1966 were used to assess whether job opportunities or vocational aspirations are the more important determinants of later job held. Support was found for two hypotheses: (a) men more often achieve congruence between their aspiration and their field of employment by changing aspirations to match the job rather than vice versa; and (b) aspirations for field of work generally are not as useful as actual job field for predicting the field of jobs held 1 to 5 years later. Contrary to expectation, middle-class young men were no more able to attain their aspirations either for field of employment or for status level of occupation than were lower-class male youths. These results suggest that although aspirations have some predictive power, the opportunity structure—which both conditions aspirations to narrow ranges early in life and affects the direction of early career development—is too often neglected by vocational psychology. One suggestion for counseling practice is that interest and maturity assessments be used as sources of information to both client and counselor about past influences. Attempts to actually counteract those influences should be clearly specified as such and separated from the assessment process.     

A Study of Black and White College Women

In an examination of career aspirations, 101 black and 530 white college women were asked to indicate their occupational and educational plans, important considerations for career choices, and their attitudes toward combining the roles of career and family. Results indicated that women who planned careers in male-dominated occupations had higher career and educational aspirations than women who desired careers in femaledominated occupations. Black women who planned careers in male-dominated professions showed high levels of aspirations, planned more education than was necessary for the desired occupations, and perceived less conflict in combining the roles of career and family than their white counterparts. There were few differences between black and white women in their attitudes toward the traditional roles of men and women. Those choosing female-dominated careers, however, had more traditional attitudes regardless of race. Implications of these findings for the influence of occupational gender dominance on career aspirations are discussed.     

Predictors of career commitment and employment level of tertiary-educated Indonesian women

This study investigated the relationships among education, liberal sex-role values, gender-role orientation (masculinity/femininity), career commitment, and employment level for a sample of 302 married Indonesian women. All participants were tertiary educated and currently employed either as teachers in tertiary institutions or as managers in government or private enterprise. Multiple regression analysis revealed that liberal sex-role values and masculinity were significant predictors of career commitment, whereas education was the only variable to significantly predict employment level. Results are compared with previous research on predictors of career commitment and employment level in both Asian and Western cultures. Directions for further research are discussed.     

Correlates and consequences of uncertainty in career aspirations: Gender differences among adolescents in England

Young people today face a great deal of uncertainty regarding their career opportunities, yet relatively little information is known about the correlates and consequences of uncertain aspirations. Drawing upon the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England (LSYPE) born in 1989/90, this study examined a pathway model investigating whether uncertain career aspirations and other associated variables mediate the link between socioeconomic status and prior achievement and later educational outcomes. Gender differences were also examined. Findings indicate that adolescents who had lower prior achievement and were from lower socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to have uncertainty in their career aspirations. The hypothesized model was supported to some extent, indicating that uncertain career aspirations and other associated variables were significant mediators. Unexpectedly, adolescents with uncertain career aspirations had higher academic performance at age 16 and a greater likelihood of educational enrollment at age 18 compared to those with high, certain aspirations, when parental educational expectations, school motivation, perceived academic ability and useful career advice were taken into account, suggesting that these young people may benefit from an extended period of moratorium in their career choice.     

Intent and Choice Regarding Maternal Employment Following Childbirth

This study examined the impact of personal values, perceived spouse preference, and family income on maternal employment intent and maternal employment following childbirth. This study followed a sample of 70 expectant working mothers from the last trimester of pregnancy to 6 months following childbirth. Traditional gender role values and perceived spouse preference influenced maternal employment intent measured prior to childbirth. Maternal employment intent and marital partner's income influenced maternal employment 6 months after childbirth. The results of this study provided support for Brown's (1996) value-based theory of career choice. Results also suggested that some women who preferred to be withdrawn from the labor force had to work to provide greater family income.     

Parental identification and patterns of career orientation in college women

We argued that parental identification should be viewed as an intermediate variable which mediates the impact of parental characteristics on women's career orientation but does not directly affect career orientation itself. Questionnaire data from 457 college women showed that, while there was no overall association between career orientation and parental identification, these variables interacted significantly in their association with self-differentiation from the father, maternal employment and occupation, and maternal sex role ideology. As predicted, career orientation among mother-identified women was associated with more extensive maternal employment and less conventional sex role ideology in both parents. For this group it was also associated with greater dissimilarity between perception of self and father. For father-identified women, we hypothesized that career orientation would be associated with less dissimilarity between self and father, less extensive maternal employment, and greater maternal sex role traditionality. Results directionally supported this father-identified pattern.     

The influence of individual and family characteristics upon career aspirations of girls during childhood and adolescence

The term pioneer is used for girls aspiring to male-dominated careers. This longitudinal study assesses the career choices of 68 middle-class girls during childhood (8–13 years, Phase I) and again during adolescence (13–18 years, Phase II), and investigates the relation between pioneering career choice and personal and family characteristics. Subjects were originally selected for exposure vs nonexposure to exogenous hormones during pregnancy. In childhood, pioneers were somewhat older, were more often persistent tomboys, had higher IQs, and had parents with higher educational attainment. In adolescence, paternal education was the only variable that showed the same relation to career choice. Adolescent girls who had wanted to get married at the time of the childhood assessment were now less likely to choose pioneering careers. Adolescent pioneers also had higher educational aspirations than nonpioneers and less likely anticipated being married within ten years than nonpioneers. A number of statistically borderline relationships were also observed: pioneers had somewhat fewer older brothers than nonpioneers, less often came from homes in which traditional femininity was stressed, and more frequently had mothers who had worked outside the home throughout their daughters' school years than mothers of nonpioneers. Prenatal exposure to exogenous sex hormones was not related to career choice during either childhood or adolescence.     

The dimensions of career and work orientation in college women

The purpose of this study was to clarify the meaning of the construct, career orientation. Fourteen presumed measures of career orientation as well as Super's Work Values Inventory were administered to college women. Analysis of the relationships among these variables identified two relatively independent clusters. The first cluster most closely approximated the usual definition of career orientation. Career-oriented women were found to be highly career motivated and perceived the career role as primary in their adult lives. The second cluster was called work orientation. This orientation characterized women with well-defined occupational aspirations who placed a high value on both the career role and marriage-family responsibilities in their future. Work-oriented women tended to choose traditionally feminine occupations in contrast to the career-oriented women whose aspirations included higher level and less traditional occupations.     

无边界职业生涯研究:二十年回顾与展望

当今社会个体职业生涯发展与管理的背景发生了巨大变化,无边界职业生涯应运而生,它指一种不限于单一雇佣范围的一系列就业机会的职业路径。文章在介绍概念及发展历程的基础上,综述了影响无边界职业生涯的四类因素,并指出以往研究在概念、发展现状、维度和影响广度等方面存在的争议。未来应该针对当前争议有目的地展开研究,界定更加清晰的概念,扩展对无边界职业生涯类型的研究,以及这种流动环境在更深层上对个体以及组织的影响。     

SOCIAL CLASS, SOCIAL CHANGE, AND GENDER

This article explores the implications of social class background in the lives of women who attended Radcliffe College in the late 1940s and in the early 1960s. Viewing social classes as "cultures" with implications for how individuals understand their worlds, we examined social class background and cohort differences in women's experiences at Radcliffe, their adult life patterns, their constructions of women's roles, and the influence of the women's movement in their lives. Results indicated that women from working-class backgrounds in both cohorts felt alienated at Radcliffe. Cohort differences, across social class, reflected broad social changes in women's roles in terms of the rates of divorce, childbearing, level of education, and career activity. There were few social class-specific social changes, but there were a number of social class differences among the women in the Class of 1964. These differences suggested that women from working-class backgrounds viewed women's marital role with some suspicion, whereas women from middle- and upper-class backgrounds had a more positive view. Perhaps for this reason, working-class women reported that the women's movement confirmed and supported their skeptical view of middle-class gender norms.     

Surviving in an era of insecurity

Abstract

Downsizing in its many guises, can have a profound impact on the employees who remain–the so-called survivors. The survivors of such change face many new demands and often find themselves in an environment comprising new organizational forms, different progression opportunities, and new rules for the employment relationship. Such changes may be geared to ensure the survival of the company, yet few organizations appear to provide the support and help required to facilitate personal survival for employees. At the interface between the organization and the individuals who remain lie many issues, including commitment, job security, career aspirations, and progression opportunities, which embody a different concept of career and its realization. This article explores career issues for survivors of the insecure organizational environment.     

Personality correlates of career choice in the Kibbutz: A comparison between career and noncareer women

The study compared Kibbutz career women (who studied beyond high school and worked in their profession) to Kibbutz noncareer women (who did not study beyond high school and worked in various nonprofessional jobs such as the laundry, the kitchen, and child care) on several personality characteristics. All subjects were nonorthodox Jewish women who were born and raised in the Kibbutz. The two groups completed a variety of self-report inventories, including the Bem Sex-Role Orientation Inventory, need for achievement inventory, two self-esteem scales that measured both the global self-esteem and various dimensions of self-esteem (academic, social, physical appearance, physical abilities, and self-regard) and Cattell's Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ), which is a short version of Cattell's 16 Personality Factors Test. The results showed that Kibbutz career women differed significantly from noncareer women on several personality characteristics. These women attributed to themselves more instrumental characteristics, were found to be more independent and emotionally stable, and had a higher need for achievement and a higher academic and social self-esteem. In addition, the division of household work was more egalitarian in the case of career women. The results are discussed in view of the fact that all of the career women were actually holding traditionally feminine positions such as teachers and social workers.     

The role of future time perspective in career decision-making

The present study of two hundred and seven university students examined the structural relation of future-orientation (both valence and instrumentality), career decision-making self-efficacy and career indecision (choice/commitment anxiety and lack of readiness) in a sample of 218 college students. Future time perspective was viewed as a key input to career decision making. Structural equation modeling results indicated that valence was not significantly related to career decision-making self-efficacy, choice/commitment anxiety and lack of readiness. However, instrumentality completely mediated the relation between valence and career decision-making self-efficacy, choice/commitment anxiety and lack of readiness. Instrumentality was significantly related to career decision-making self-efficacy and lack of readiness. Career decision-making self-efficacy completely mediated the relation between instrumentality and choice/commitment anxiety; however, it only partially mediated the relation between instrumentality and lack of readiness. Although the proposed model was invariant across gender, the findings indicated that women reported higher instrumentality and lower lack of readiness than did men. No differences were found for career decision-making self-efficacy and choice/commitment anxiety across gender. The findings suggest that psychologists, counselors, and teachers should consider the role of future time perspective in university students' career development.     

Examining the differences in career thoughts of women in three low socioeconomic status groups

The authors examined differences in career thoughts of 3 groups of women from low socioeconomic status backgrounds. The 3 groups were composed of women who were not seeking employment, women attempting to obtain General Educational Development (GED) certification prior to seeking employment, and women with disabilities who were participating in readiness‐to‐work programs. Results indicated that there were significant differences in participants' career thoughts. Specifically, career thoughts of women who were not seeking employment were significantly less dysfunctional than were the career thoughts of the women who were pursuing their GED certification and those of the women with disabilities who were participating in a job‐readiness training program. The impact of negative career thoughts is discussed.     

What's in a title? Personality,job aspirations,and the nontraditional woman

The vocational interests and job aspirations of traditional and nontraditional women in a single work environment were examined in a study of 258 paying-and-receiving tellers. Nontraditionality was operationally defined as choosing the honorific “Ms.” when given the opportunity to do so. Even with a variety of demographic characteristics statistically controlled, nontraditional women scored higher than traditional women on Vocational Preference Inventory Investigative and Enterprising scales. Nontraditional women also aspired to occupations employing a greater percentage of men, but no reliable difference in the prestige level of future aspirations was found. Implications for counseling and the study of career development are discussed.