Personality dimensions in two types of learning-disabled children: a Rorschach study

Children referred for psychoeducational assessment of learning disabilities (LDs) commonly receive the Rorschach test. yet little is known about the impact of LD on Rorschach response patterns. This study investigated Rorschach response patterns in two groups of 9- to 12-year-old children (n = 41) classified by their respective intellectual abilities. Another group of 9- to 12-year-olds (n = 143) served as a nonclinical comparison group. Rorschach variables indicative of personality dimensions failed to discriminate between the two LD groups. Compared to the nonclinical group, the LD group exhibited several Rorschach characteristics--including problems in perceptual accuracy, inefficient visual scanning and problem-solving strategies, and avoidance of affect-laden stimuli--having implications for successful socioemotional adaptation. Suggestions for further research are discussed.     

A four-year follow-up study of the effects of methylphenidate on the behavior and academic achievement of hyperactive children

Sixty-two children were evaluated 4 years after their initial referral for symptoms of hyperactivity. Behavioral measures included parent and teacher judgments of behavior and social adjustment. Academic achievement was assessed by teachers' reports, number of failed grades, special education services, and two individually administered achievement tests. Data were analyzed for the total group to determine both the extent to which presenting problems diminished over time and the major problems still present. The effects of stimulant drug therapy on outcome were assessed by dividing the children into groups according to the duration of time they had taken stimulants. Total duration of time on stimulants ranged from less than 6 months (group 1) to 4 years (group 5). Results indicated that the symptoms of hyperactivity significantly lessened, but remained higher in these children than in normal peers. Behavioral and social problems were less pervasive than academic underachievement. There were no group differences, indicating that the duration of stimulant intervention did not have a significant effect on outcome. The clinical implication of this study is that the beneficial effects of stimulant drug intervention occur within the first months after initiation of therapy. Long-term treatment does not appear to be of value in producing better outcome.     

Self-reported anxiety in children and adolescents: a three-year follow-up study

Anxiety may be more transient in children and adolescents than in adults. The present study involves a longitudinal design enabling the investigation of the continuity/discontinuity of self-reported anxiety in children and adolescents. A sample of 68 children was followed over 3 years. Results indicate that, on the whole, self-reported anxiety decreased over time. This was true for overall anxiety and its sub-types, with the exception of social concerns/concentration, which did not decrease over time. Consistent with past research involving normal fear, girls and younger children were found to score higher on anxiety than boys and older children did. However, those groups scoring higher at inception also demonstrated the most marked decreases over the 3-year period. In addition to the changes found over time, the data indicated continuity in anxiety such that levels of anxiety at inception were significant predictors of follow-up anxiety, although only a small amount of variance was shared. The authors concluded that adult models of anxiety cannot be applied to youth and that future research should investigate the contribution of contextual factors to the development of anxiety in children.     

The role of verbalization in the Rorschach response process: a review

Traditional Rorschach theory has consistently overlooked the linguistic aspect of the response process. Most conceptualizations focus on the perceptual and cognitive aspects of the process, never examining the subject's need to find a linguistic representation for the inner, perceptual process. This review examines the traditional formulations and suggests that new research from information-processing, neuropsychological, and dual-coding memory theory paradigms offer new possibilities for Rorschach research that would incorporate an appreciation of the unique cognitive demand of the test--the linking of percept with language.     

Primary process thinking and anxiety in children

The relationship between primary process thinking and two measures of anxiety was investigated in fourth- and fifth-grade children. Holt's Scoring System for Primary Process Responses on the Rorschach was the measure of primary process thinking. The major hypotheses were supported for boys in that frequency of expression of primary process material was positively related to behavioral manifestations of anxiety as measured by the Teacher's Rating Scale. Also, controlled access to and integration of primary process was negatively related to teacher's ratings of anxiety. There were no significant results for girls. Primary process measures were not related to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Possible reasons for the different relationships between the primary process measures and the anxiety measures are discussed.     

On the integration of personality assessment methods: the Rorschach and MMPI

Despite being the most studied and used personality assessment tools, data from the Rorschach and MMPI generally disagree (Archer & Krishnamurthy, 1993a, 1993b). Independence is proposed to result from at least 3 factors: (a) the methods tap unique levels of personality, (b) personality has a complex organization, and (c) response styles generate considerable method variance that must be considered in nomothetic research. These ideas led to 5 hypotheses, each of which received support. Rorschach and MMPI response styles are uncorrelated, although response styles are quite consistent within a method family. MMPI-2 and Rorschach constructs of dysphoria, psychosis, or wariness are uncorrelated when response styles are ignored. However, robust convergent validity is evident when patients have similar response styles on each method (e.g., for dysphoria, M r = .59) and dysphoria is expressed in opposing ways on each method when response styles are discordant (i.e., M r = -.54). Data from the latter analyses were correlated with genuine clinical phenomena and implications were discussed for clinical practice and research.     

Alexithymia and sociocultural factors in a Japanese sample: a study with the Rorschach

We reexamined the Japanese version of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale, a self-report sc ale for measuring alexithymic characteristics, by comparing the scores on three factors and the total scores with variables of the Rorschach in a sample of 40 (originally 48) Japanese college students. Based on prior studies, our aims were to further validate the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale by comparing its scores with those on a projective technique. We also investigated whether sociocultural factors, such as repression of hostility. are associated with scores on the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (especially Factor 3). None of the seven Rorschach Alexithymia Variables were significantly related to the factors and total scores of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. However, scores for Factor 1 (difficulty identifying feelings) of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale correlated positively with scores on Sum C' (reserved responses to emotional stimuli) and Adj es (stimulus demand), suggesting that individuals who score high for Factor 1 experience gloomy, depressive feelings but in constricted ways. Scores for Factor 3 (externally oriented thinking) correlated positively with the D scores (stress tolerance) and negatively with m (situational stress) responses, suggesting that Factor 3 may reflect a psychological defense that enhances stress tolerance. There was a nonsignificant negative correlation between Factor 1 and Factor 3 scores, but, unlike our hypothesis. Factor 3 was neither related to AG (aggression) nor S (space responses reflecting oppositional tendency), indices of aggression or hostility in the Rorschach Comprehensive System. It may be that the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale and the Rorschach measure quite different aspects of personality, but further research is necessary.     

Learned helplessness in children: a longitudinal study of depression, achievement, and explanatory style

In this longitudinal study, the depressive symptoms, life events, and explanatory styles of 168 school children were measured five times during the course of 1 year. Measures of school achievement were obtained once during the year. Depressive symptoms and explanatory styles were found to be quite stable over the year. As predicted by the reformulated learned helplessness theory, explanatory style both correlated with concurrent levels of depression and school achievement and predicted later changes in depression during the year. Depression also predicted later explanatory styles. The implications of these results for intervention with children with depressive symptoms or school achievement problems are discussed.     

Rorschach Comprehensive System data for a sample of 75 Danish 9-year-old children: a pilot study

This article provides a normative study documenting how 75 Danish nonpatient 9-year-old children respond to the Rorschach test. The children were selected randomly from nine different parts of Denmark and tested with the Rorschach by 10 different psychologists. All examiners were familiar with the Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 2003), and before the data collection they participated in a 3-day workshop performed by the research group that focused on administration, inquiry, and scoring issues. Among the results are an average R of 23.6 and an average Lambda of 2.01 (median = 1.18). Slightly more than 60% of the sample had an Avoidant style (63%); 41% had a CDI of 4 or 5; and 33% were positive on the HVI. In terms of perception and thinking, average values were .44 for X+%, .27 for X-%, and 9.4 for the WSum6.     

Rorschach aggression variables: a study of reliability and validity

This study investigated the extent to which 6 Rorschach variables of aggression (A1, A2, AG, MOR, AgC, AgPast) are related to one another, to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) Cluster B personality disorder criteria, and to self-report measures of anger, aggression, and antisocial behavior. Seventy-eight patients were found to meet DSM-IV criteria for an Axis II disorder, Cluster A personality disorder (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal) = 9, Cluster B (antisocial personality disorder [ANPD] = 16, borderline personality disorder [BPD] = 23, histrionic personality disorder = 5, narcissistic personality disorder = 12) = 56, and Cluster C personality disorder (avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive) = 13. The results of this study indicated that (a) these 6 Rorschach aggression variables can be scored reliably; (b) 2 factors, revealed by factor analysis, accounted for 77% of the total variance; (c) selected variables were found to be empirically related to DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for ANPD and BPD; and (d) selected variables were found to be empirically related to a self-report measure of anger and antisocial practices. The conceptual nature and clinical utility of these Rorschach aggression variables as well as implications for future research are discussed.     

Rorschach Erlebnistypus and problem-solving styles in children

This study was designed to determine whether introversive versus extratensive children differed, on the basis of their Rorschach Erlebnistypus score, with respect to their approaches to three subtests (Block Design, Object Assembly, and Mazes) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised. It was thought that the extratensives would manipulate the test materials more and make more mistakes than the introversives, owing to the notion that introversives would internalize more of their manipulations and attempted solutions. Analysis of the data revealed mixed results.     

Personality in panic disorder with agoraphobia: a Rorschach study.

In this study, we tested several hypotheses derived from self psychology (Diamond, 1987) regarding personality features of patients suffering from panic disorder and agoraphobia (PDA). PDA patients are thought to suffer from a deficit in negative affect-regulating capacity, surrounded by defenses such as avoidance, repression, denial, and reaction formation against dependency needs. These defenses are thought to lead to a greatly impoverished affective life. The Rorschach Comprehensive System was used to assess the personality features of avoidance, restricted affective life, and reaction formation against dependency needs. We found evidence for the presence of a highly avoidant information-processing style (86% of protocols had lambda [L] greater than .99) and a constricted affective life (low weighted sum color [WSumC] and low affective ratio [Afr]). Our results were consistent with the hypothesis of reaction formation against dependency needs (low food content [Fd]). Findings are discussed in light of studies that found a high incidence of avoidant personality disorder in PDA patients.     

4～8岁儿童视动整合能力发展及其与学业成绩关系的研究

视动整合能力指个体在有目的的操作活动过程中视觉感知和手部运动的协调与配合能力,在儿童操作活动中具有重要作用.本研究考察了4-8岁儿童视动整合能力的发展水平及其与学业成绩的关系,结果发现:(1)随着年龄的增长,儿童视动整合能力表现出明显的上升趋势,在6-7岁之间发展速度较快;(2)视动整合能力与儿童学业成绩间的相关显著,差异检验表明,学习成绩好的儿童视动整合能力显著高于学习成绩差的儿童.     

The middle schooling process: influences on science and mathematics achievement from the longitudinal study of American youth

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to develop and test a model of middle school science and mathematics achievement with a national probability sample of 3,116 seventh-grade public school students. Eighth-grade achievement was viewed as a function of readiness attributes on entry into seventh grade and intervening parent, peer, self, and classroom affective and behavioral measures. Data were collected from students and parents over three time periods in seventh and eighth grade. Results of a revised structural model showed that prior achievement in science and math was a strong mediator of effects in the process of schooling. Grades in sixth grade, parental expectations, parent educational attainment, and motivation had moderately strong indirect effects on eighth-grade achievements. Also notable was the positive direct influence of perceptions of classroom context on science and math achievement growth and the negative direct influence of sex (in favor of girls) on science achievement growth. Cross-validation on a split-half sample did not disconfirm the model. It was concluded that while prior achievement had a dominant influence in the schooling process, other variables including parental expectations, motivation, and classroom context do contribute to the schooling process and can be a focal point for improving school success. These and other factors, though helpful, may be most effective well before the middle school years.     

Some Developmental Aspects of Primary Process Manifestations in the Rorschach

A group of 27 male subjects were administered the Rorschach at ages 14 and 24. The protocols were scored for the main categories of the Holt Primary Process scoring system. A comparison of the two age groups indicates that at age 24 there is a decrease in the percentage of primary process responses and an increase in “adaptive regression.” Individual differences for all the primary process scoring categories remained highly consistent for the 10-year period spanned by the data. Adaptive regression was found to be significantly correlated with IQ, field independence (RFT), and Rorschach ratings of intellectualization at both ages. The results were viewed as suggesting that primary process manifestations on the Rorschach seem to be mediated by stable aspects of an individual's cognitive abilities and cognitive style.