Chronic parenting stress: moderating versus mediating effects of social support

The present study contrasted the widely cited "buffer" model of social support with an alternative mediator model. Distinctions were drawn between the functions of social support under chronic vs. acute stress conditions, and between situation-specific stressors and major life events. Ongoing parenting stress was assessed in 96 mothers of deaf children and 118 matched controls. Tests of the competing models showed no moderating effects for social support. However, path analyses suggested that social support mediated the relationship between stressors and outcomes. Chronic parenting stress was associated with lowered perceptions of emotional support, and greater symptoms of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, parenting stress accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in psychological distress scores in contrast to life event stress, which was only weakly related to psychological outcomes. The implications of mediational models for understanding adaptation to chronic stress are discussed.     

Rumination, negative cognition, and their interactive effects on depressed mood

Response styles theory posits that rumination represents a trait vulnerability to depression. Recent evidence has suggested that rumination predicts changes in depression more strongly among individuals with high levels of negative cognition. Three studies evaluated this model of interactive vulnerabilities. Study 1 provided empirical support for the distinction between rumination and negative cognitive content. The next 2 studies investigated the interactive model in the laboratory. Study 2 randomly assigned participants to either ruminate or distract following a sad mood induction. This study found that rumination was more strongly associated with dysphoria among individuals who report high levels of negative cognition. Similarly, Study 3 found that rumination and negative cognition interact to predict changes in dysphoria across a no-task delay period following a sad mood induction. These studies provide support for an interactive model in which rumination amplifies the deleterious effects of negative cognition.     

Sex roles and social support as moderators of life stress adjustment

In this study we used a longitudinal design to test the stress-buffering effects of sex role orientation in combination with perceived social support on measures of trait anxiety and depression. College undergraduates served as subjects. The cross-sectional analyses provided strong support for the hypothesis that masculinity would function as a life stress buffer. The hypothesis that social support would serve as a stress buffer when coupled with high masculinity was supported by one of the cross-sectional analyses as well as the longitudinal analysis. This pattern was found primarily for perceptions of tangible social support. The longitudinal analysis also revealed a significant interaction involving negative life events and masculinity and femininity. This interaction effect provided unexpected support for a balance model of androgyny, in that non-sex-typed subjects showed greater resilience to recent life stress than did sex-typed subjects. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of life stress adjustment.     

Occupational stress, social support, and depression

A model of occupational stress, social support, locus of control, and depression among family physicians was developed. Two hundred and ten family physicians were administered measures of occupational stress, social support, locus of control, and depression. The hypothesized model was evaluated using structural equation models (LISREL). Results indicate that occupational stress exerts a direct effect on depression. This relationship is moderated directly by family social and emotional support and indirectly by the influence of locus of control on family social support. Support from peers was not significantly related to depression. Findings suggest that individuals with a strong sense of personal control also possess beneficial support systems in the presence of stressful situations.     

Stress, psychosocial resources, and depressive symptomatology during pregnancy in low-income, inner-city women.

The authors examined the prospective influence of stress, self-esteem, and social support on the postpartum depressive symptoms of 191 inner-city women (139 European Americans and 52 African Americans) over 3 waves of data collection. Depressive symptomatology was measured by multiple indicators, including self-report and clinical scales. Women became less depressed as they move from prenatal to postpartum stages and adjusted to their pregnancy and its consequences. LISREL and regression analyses indicated that stress was related to increased depression, whereas greater income and social support were related to decreased depression. Self-esteem was related to lower depression at the prenatal and postpartum periods but not to change in depression from the prenatal to the postpartum period. The results also indicated that self-esteem and social support did not have additional stress-buffering effects over and above their direct effects on depression. Finally, African American women did not differ from European American women terms of depression or in terms of how they were impacted by stress or psychosocial resources.     

Examining the effects of perceived social support on momentary mood and symptom reports in asthma and arthritis patients

Objective: Social support has been linked to beneficial effects on health directly (main effect) and as a buffer to stress. Most research, however, has examined these relationships using global and retrospective assessments of health and stress, which may be subject to recall biases. This study used ambulatory ecological momentary assessment (EMA) methods to test the main and stress-buffering effects of social support on the daily health and well-being of asthma and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients.

Design: Community volunteers with asthma (n?=?97) or RA (n?=?31) responded to EMA prompts five times daily for one week.

Main outcomes: Baseline perceived social support was obtained, and then, participants reported mood, stress and symptoms using EMA. Multilevel mixed-modelling examined whether social support predicted mood and symptoms directly or via stress-reducing effects.

Results: Supporting a main effect, more perceived social support predicted decreased negative mood and stress severity. Supporting a stress-buffering effect, more perceived social support resulted in fewer reported symptoms when stress was present.

Conclusion: Results suggest perceived social support directly relates to better ambulatory status and dynamically buffers individuals against the negative effects of stressors, and highlight the importance of studying social support across different temporal and contextual levels.     

Perceptions of social support,receipt of supportive behaviors,and locus of control as moderators of the effects of chronic stress

Conclusion Although the cross-sectional methodology of the present study limits causal inference, the results concerning the buffering effects of received social support for those who have perceptions of internal locus of control corroborates previous research and thus suggests that causal interpretations offered may have some validity.Several general conclusions appear justified from the present study. First, it appears a measure of social support that asks respondents to report on the receipt of particular supportive actions yields different information than a measure that asks respondents to rate the amount of support available to them. Second, perceptions of internal locus of control in combination with receipt of supportive behaviors has a stress-buffering effect. Third, perceptions concerning locus of control appear important in determining the direct and moderating effects of perceived social support on psychological distress. Finally, the interpretation of social support by stress interactions in which support acts as a negative buffer, i.e., increases the stress-symptom relation, may increase our understanding of the role of social support in coping with stress.     

Social Support,Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Spanish and Portuguese At-Risk Families

Individuals with low socioeconomic status generally have worse mental health outcomes than their wealthier counterparts; a tendency that is exacerbated during financial crises. However, social support might buffer the effects of stress on mental health. In this study, we tested whether social support mitigated the effects of economic hardship on psychological distress on an at-risk sample from two of the European countries most affected by the 2008 economic downturn: Spain and Portugal. Participants were 249 caregivers enrolled in Child Welfare Services (73.0% women). Results showed that economic hardship and a negative indicator of social support (network dysfunctionality) were significant predictors of belonging to the psychological distress clinical group (OR: 2.35 and 1.80, respectively). However, no significant interaction effects were observed, thereby refuting the buffering effect hypothesis. When we conducted an in depth analysis of the clinical group, a significant moderation effect emerged. Our results suggest that, for at-risk populations, the detrimental effects of dysfunctional networks on mental health can outweigh the benefits of positive assistance and that social support is a potential stress buffer only for individuals in the clinical spectrum. These findings indicate that the protective effect of social support during circumstances of intense economic adversity is limited.     

The buffering role of social support on the associations among discrimination,mental health,and suicidality in a transgender sample

Introduction: Per the minority stress framework, trans individuals often experience psychological distress given the unique stress engendered by gender identity–related discrimination. Prior research has identified social support as particularly important for psychological distress and has suggested that social support may moderate this relationship. The purpose of the current study was to explore the patterns of connections among discrimination, mental health, and suicidal ideation in trans individuals and whether social support moderates these relationships. Methods: Participants (N = 78) completed measures of these constructs as part of a national online survey. Results: A series of simultaneous multiple regressions found that harassment/rejection discrimination was a unique positive predictor of mental health symptoms and suicidal ideation, with depression positively predicting suicidal ideation. A mediational model indicated that the association between harassment/rejection discrimination and suicidal ideation was fully mediated by depression. Three moderated meditational models were run, and one yielded a significant interaction, such that discrimination predicted suicidal ideation most strongly when participants had low social support from a significant other in comparison to participants who had moderate or high support. Further, conditional direct effects identified that discrimination led to ideation only for individuals with low support from friends or a significant other but not for those with moderate or high support. Conclusions: Helping trans individuals cope with harassment and rejection, particularly by drawing on social support, may promote better mental health, which could help reduce suicidality in this population.     

Between Avoidance and Problem Solving: Resilience,Self‐Efficacy,and Social Support Seeking

The authors explored resilience, self‐efficacy, and social support seeking as (a) mediators between stress and problem solving and (b) moderators buffering the effect of stress on avoidance. Participants were 220 college students. Structural equation modeling showed that resilience and self‐efficacy positively influenced problem solving but could not buffer stress's effect on avoidance. Social support seeking played a more important role than resilience and self‐efficacy in reducing avoidance when individuals intentionally used social support seeking as a source for problem solving instead of avoidance.     

Social support and the course of bipolar disorder

The current study prospectively examined the impact of social support on symptom severity and recovery from episodes in bipolar disorder, both as a direct influence and as a buffer of life events. Fifty-nine individuals with Bipolar I disorder were followed longitudinally with monthly symptom severity interviews. Social support was measured by the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List and the Interview Schedule for Social Interaction, and life events were assessed using the Life Events and Difficulties Schedule. Individuals with low social support took longer to recover from episodes and were more symptomatic across a 6-month follow-up. Results suggest a polarity-specific effect, in that social support influences depression but not mania. Discussion focuses on theoretical implications of a series of polarity-specific findings within the field.     

Depressive Symptoms Among Delinquent Youth: Testing Models of Association with Stress and Support

The high prevalence of depression among incarcerated youth indicates a need to better understand factors that contribute to depression within this vulnerable subgroup. Previous research in general community samples has suggested that high levels of stress and low levels of parental support are associated with depression in young people, but it is unclear whether or how they might be associated with depression among incarcerated youth who are already vulnerable. Using a sample of 228 adolescents (aged 13–18 years) who were detained in the juvenile justice system, stress and support were modeled as independent main effects and as interactive risk factors in relation to depressive symptoms. More stressful life events and less caregiver support were each independently associated with depressive symptoms, but no evidence was found for the buffering hypothesis in this sample. Stressful life events were more strongly associated with depressive symptoms among boys compared to girls.     

青少年网络受欺负与抑郁：压力感与网络社会支持的作用

采用网络受欺负量表、压力感量表、网络社会支持问卷和流调中心用抑郁量表对751名初中生进行调查,考察了青少年网络受欺负与抑郁的关系、压力感在网络受欺负与抑郁间的中介作用以及网络社会支持在其中的调节作用。结果表明：（1）青少年网络受欺负与抑郁存在显著正相关;（2）压力感在网络受欺负和抑郁间起完全中介作用;（3）网络社会支持在网络受欺负事件引起的压力感与抑郁间起调节作用,压力感对青少年抑郁的影响,随网络社会支持水平的提高而降低。     

The Interplay Among Risk Factors for Suicidal Ideation and Suicide: The Role of Depression, Poor Health, and Loved Ones' Messages of Support and Criticism

When individuals who receive social support are in poor physical or mental health and are criticized or made to feel unwanted, they may perceive themselves as a burden. Poor physical health and depression were hypothesized to exacerbate the harmful effects on suicidal ideation of receiving critical negative messages and of receiving social support. These hypotheses were tested using secondary analyses of data from a sample of 533 unemployed married individuals who were assessed shortly after job loss, and 6 months later. The results of our analyses supported the hypotheses and demonstrated that for participants with poor health or high level of depressive symptoms an increase in critical messages and social support (from Time 1 to Time 2) predicted increased suicidal ideation. This relationship was not observed for non- depressed participants in good health. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for suicide prevention.     

Family and Nonfamily Components of Social Support as Buffers of Stress for College Women1

Two samples of college women (N= 273 and N= 99) were administered a stress inventory, a social support scale, and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. Separate measures of family and nonfamily social support were obtained as well as separate measures of types of social support: social availability, tangible support, information/guidance, and emotional support. With the total symptom score used as the dependent variable, nonfamily social support showed a clear buffering effect on life stress in both samples, whereas family social support showed significant buffering only in Sample 2. Multiple regression analyses indicated that nonfamily emotional support was more effective as a buffer than family social support in both samples. There were no clear differences among the types of social support in their buffering effectiveness All four symptom subscales showed buffering trends, but depression was the only subscale that was significantly buffered in both samples by nonfamily social support. The greater effectiveness of nonfamily social support as a buffer of stress is discussed in terms of the possible greater availablity, both physically and psychologically, of nonfamily friends for late adolescent and young adult women.     

An Exploratory Study About the Buffering Effect of Gratitude on the Relationship Between Neuroticism and Anhedonic Depression

This study explored the interactive and independent effects of gratitude and neuroticism on anhedonic depression. The tripartite theory of affect deems blunted positive affect to be tantamount to anhedonia (Clark and Watson in J Abnorm Psychol 100:316–336, 1991); hence, gratitude as a positive affective trait was posited to be related to anhedonic depression. A sample of 493 undergraduate students completed measures of the variables. Hierarchical regression showed that even though gratitude did not appear to moderate the relationship between neuroticism and anhedonic depression, it had a significant main effect on the outcome such that those who had higher gratitude scores exhibited lower levels of anhedonic depression even after controlling for the effects of both positive and negative affect. Implications of the findings regarding gratitude’s utility as a resiliency factor against anhedonic depression as well as its potential to buffer against the effects of many risk factors other than neuroticism are discussed. Researchers and mental health practitioners are encouraged to explore the nature of gratitude as a possible resource of individuals at risk for developing psychopathology, as there may be multiple avenues through which gratitude could be fostered in psychotherapy and in everyday life.     

Increasing the probability of finding an interaction in work stress research: A two‐wave longitudinal test of the triple‐match principle

Research into work stress has attempted to identify job resources that can moderate the effects of job demands on strain. The recently developed triple‐match principle (TMP) proposes that job demands, resources, and strain can be conceptualized as being composed of cognitive, emotional, and physical dimensions. When a psychological imbalance is induced by job demands, individuals activate corresponding resources to reduce the effects of the demands. A closer match occurs when the resources are processed in the same psychological domain as the demands. The further away from a match, the less likely an interactive effect will become. Put simply, the likelihood of finding an interactive effect between job demands and job resources is greatest when demands, resources, and strain are based on qualitatively similar dimensions (i.e. cognitive, emotional, and physical). For example, emotional support from colleagues is likely to buffer the effects of emotional demands on emotional exhaustion. The TMP was tested in a sample of 179 Australian police officers in a two‐wave longitudinal study. The likelihood of finding an interactive effect was related to the degree of match between job demands, job resources, and strain with 33.3% of triple‐match interactions significant, 22.2% when there was a double‐match, and 0.0% when there was no match. These findings lend support to the TMP as a guiding framework, for research, to explore possible interactive effects in work stress research, and for practice, to inform interventions matching resources to occupational demands, to offset strain.     

Social Support and Its Relation to Health: A Critical Evaluation

issues and problems related to the view that social support can moderate or reduce the adverse effects of stress on mental and physical health are discussed. Conceptual, methodological, and theoretical shortcomings of this body of research are presented. Research attention is directed toward the interactive process between provider and recipient of social support. Identification of factors involved in the receipt and offering of social support is essential for theory development. Recognition of individual differences in the giving, as well as taking, of social support is needed. The possibility is raised that the persistent belief in the power of social support to reduce stress, despite lack of convincing data, reflects a form of bias due to strong expectancies.     

The relationship of daily hassles, social support, and coping to depression in black and white students

Black and White American college students were compared to determine how daily hassles, coping strategies, and social support related to depression. Although the mean intensity of hassles did not differ, Black students reported a higher frequency of hassles. Cumulative severity of hassles, defined in terms of both intensity and frequency was therefore higher for Black students. White students perceived more support from friends than from family, but the opposite held for Black students. Mean scores on type of coping (active problem solving, seeking social support, or avoidance) were similar, as were the reported levels of depression. Hierarchical multiple regression showed that the severity of hassles was directly related to depression for both groups. Race did not interact with any index of social support, except perceived family support, which was related to lower depression among Black students. There was no support for the notion that social support serves as a buffer against depression.     

The direct and interactive effects of neuroticism and life stress on the severity and longitudinal course of depressive symptoms

The direct and interactive effects of neuroticism and stressful life events (chronic and episodic stressors) on the severity and temporal course of depression symptoms were examined in 826 outpatients with mood and anxiety disorders, assessed on 3 occasions over a 1-year period (intake and 6- and 12-month follow-ups). Neuroticism, chronic stress, and episodic stress were uniquely associated with intake depression symptom severity. A significant interaction effect indicated that the strength of the effect of neuroticism on initial depression severity increased as chronic stress increased. Although neuroticism did not have a significant direct effect on the temporal course of depression symptoms, chronic stress significantly moderated this relationship such that neuroticism had an increasingly deleterious effect on depression symptom improvement as the level of chronic stress over follow-up increased. In addition, chronic stress (but not episodic stress) over follow-up was uniquely predictive of less depression symptom improvement. Consistent with a stress generation framework, however, initial depression symptom severity was positively associated with chronic stress during follow-up. The results are discussed in regard to diathesis-stress conceptual models of emotional disorders and the various roles of stressful life events in the onset, severity, and maintenance of depressive psychopathology.