Unity in nominal equational reasoning: The algebra of equality on nominal sets

There are currently no fewer than four dedicated logics for equality reasoning over nominal sets: nominal algebra, nominal equational logic, nominal equational logic with equality only, and permissive-nominal algebra.In this survey and research paper we present these logics side-by-side in a common notation, survey their similarities and differences, discuss their proof- and model-theories, and discuss in detail what the implications of those differences are for mathematical reasoning in each of them.     

Productivity is not enough: A comparison of interactive and nominal brainstorming groups on idea generation and selection

The conclusion that nominal brainstorming groups outperform interactive brainstorming groups has been exclusively based on studies of idea generation. This study tested whether the productivity advantage of nominal groups would also result in better idea selection. Nominal and interactive groups performed a task that involved idea generation and selection. Idea generation and selection were strictly separated for half the groups, but were combined for the other half. Nominal groups generated more ideas than interactive groups, and the ideas generated by nominal groups were more original and less feasible than the ideas generated by interactive groups. However, there were no differences among conditions in quality of the selected ideas. Further, idea selection was not significantly better than chance. This suggests that high productivity in brainstorming is not sufficient to lead to better solutions.     

The representative animal

The anthropocentric approach to the study of animal behavior uses representative nonhuman animals to understand human behavior. This approach raises problems concerning the comparison of the behavior of two different species. The datum of behavior analysis is the behavior of humans and representative animal phenotypes. The behavioral phenotype is the product of the ontogeny and phylogeny of each species, and this requires that contributions of genotype as well as behavioral history to experimental performance be considered. Behavior analysis tends to favor the ontogenetic over the phylogenetic component, yet both components are responsible for the performance of each individual animal. This paper raises questions about the role of genotype variables in the use of representative animals to understand human behavior. Examples indicating the role of genotype in human behavior are also discussed. The final section of the paper deals with considerations of genotype in the design of animal experiments.     

The interpretation of isolated novel nominal compounds

The lexical decision task was used to investigate interpretative processing of isolated novel compounds (noun-noun nominals). On the basis of interpretability ratings, novel compounds were classified as being of either high or low interpretability. In a lexical decision task in which novel compounds functioned as nonwords, a significant interference effect was found for compounds of high interpretability. In a naming task, no differences were found between the two types of novel compounds, but lexicalized compounds resulted in shorter latencies than did novel compounds. Novel compounds were also shown to be interpreted under conditions unfavorable to morphological decomposition, suggesting that the interpretation process is beyond strategic control by the subject. Equal semantic priming effects were obtained for members of established semantic categories and nouns of highly interpretable compounds. Interpretative processes dealing with a limited set of basic semantic relations and analogy with lexicalized compounds are discussed.     

The production of nominal compounds in aphasia

This study reports the difficulties of aphasic patients in producing nominal compounds in German. In a picture naming task with semantically relatively transparent targets it was found that the word frequency of the components determined the accuracy of the patients' performance. A second picture naming task using relatively opaque targets, and a further naming task in which patients were confronted with aurally presented object paraphrases using very opaque targets, are reported. The error patterns of all three tasks give evidence for morpheme-based mis-productions (e.g., componential substitutions), however, in declining proportions with decreasing semantic transparency. Access to final (or basic) components was clearly superior to initial (or determinative) components suggesting position-specific access routines.     

Calculating nominal group statistics in collaboration studies

In many areas of psychology researchers compare the output of pairs of people with people working individually. This is done by calculating estimates for nominal groups, the output of two individuals if they had worked together. The way this is often done is by creating a single set of pairs either randomly or based on their location in a data file. This paper shows that this approach introduces unnecessary error. Two alternatives are developed and described. The first calculates statistics for all permissible sets of pairs. Unfortunately the number of sets is too large for modern computers for moderate sample sizes. The second alternative calculates statistics on all possible pairs. Several simulations are reported which show that both methods provide good estimates for the mean and trimmed mean. However, the all pairs procedure provides a biased estimate of the variance. Based on simulations, an adjustment is recommended for estimating the variance. Functions in S-Plus/R are provided in an appendix and are available from the author's Web page along with updates and alternatives (www.sussex.ac.uk/users/danw/s-plus/ngstats.htm).     

Obtaining results through modeling

This article presents practical applications of the theoretical notion of modeling. Use of live and symbolic models is emphasized, along with the modeling techniques of role reversal and role identification.     

Predictability and recall strategy for nominal serial position curves

Forty subjects participated in the present study which was designed to test the predictability notion (Rönnberg, 1980b) contra a temporal model and how they apply to a list learning situation. Recall order was combined with type of encoding function governing the inter-item intervals in the lists. Data supported the predictability notion in general and a strong position of this concept in particular.     

最佳疗效的保证

探讨获取最佳疗效的方方面面.医学模式的转变是十分必要的.疗效最好、康复最快、痛苦最小、危险最少、费用最低,应是最佳疗效的具体标准.个体差异与过度医疗问题需引起高度重视,未来医学的发展与寻求最佳疗效息息相关.     

Measuring nominal scale agreement between a judge and a known standard

Two designs for comparing a judge's ratings with a known standard are presented and compared. Design A pertains to the situation where the judge is asked to categorize each ofN subjects into one ofr (known) classes with no knowledge of the actual number in each class. Design B is employed when the judge is given the actual number in each class and is asked to categorize the individuals subject to these constraints. The probability distribution of the total number of correct choices is developed in each case. A power comparison of the two procedures is undertaken.     

Modification indices for the 2-PL and the nominal response model

In this paper, it is shown that various violations of the 2-PL model and the nominal response model can be evaluated using the Lagrange multiplier test or the equivalent efficient score test. The tests presented here focus on violation of local stochastic independence and insufficient capture of the form of the item characteristic curves. Primarily, the tests are item-oriented diagnostic tools, but taken together, they also serve the purpose of evaluation of global model fit. A useful feature of Lagrange multiplier statistics is that they are evaluated using maximum likelihood estimates of the null-model only, that is, the parameters of alternative models need not be estimated. As numerical examples, an application to real data and some power studies are presented.     

Obtaining funding for new researchers in psychology

A mentor is the key person to assist a student who wishes to become an independent investigator. The federal government provides long-term funding for decades of research by an investigator, and short-term funding for years of transition from student to investigator is available from both governmental and private agencies. Grants designed for men and women and various ethnic groups are valuable resources. Courteous acknowledgment of sponsorship by the grantee facilitates continued grants from the funding source.     

Frequency effects in the processing of lexicalized and novel nominal compounds

The processing of lexicalized and novel noun-noun compounds of high interpretability was investigated. In Experiment 1, the familiarity of the lexicalized compounds had a significant effect on lexical decision times, but no frequency effects were observed for the constituent nouns. In Experiment 2, a frequency effect was found for the first noun of novel compounds, but not for the second noun. This result was replicated in Experiment 3 with different types of nonwords. A negative word frequency effect for the first noun was found in Experiment 4 in which the novel compounds functioned as nonwords. A frequency effect for the first noun was also observed in Experiment 5, in which a semantic classification task was used. Results point to a decomposition second model according to which access is initially based on the whole compound. If this is unsuccessful the compound will be decomposed and the constituent nouns will be processed separately. It is argued that in novel compounds, nouns are processed sequentially, and different orders of processing are discussed.     

Fresh Logic: proof-theory and semantics for FM and nominal techniques

In this paper we introduce Fresh Logic, a natural deduction style first-order logic extended with term-formers and quantifiers derived from the FM-sets model of names and binding in abstract syntax. Fresh Logic can be classical or intuitionistic depending on whether we include a law of excluded middle; we present a proof-normalisation procedure for the intuitionistic case and a semantics based on Kripke models in FM-sets for which it is sound and complete.