Self‐Compassion,Self‐Esteem,and Well‐Being

This article focuses on the construct of self‐compassion and how it differs from self‐esteem. First, it discusses the fact that while self‐esteem is related to psychological well‐being, the pursuit of high self‐esteem can be problematic. Next it presents another way to feel good about oneself: self‐compassion. Self‐compassion entails treating oneself with kindness, recognizing one’s shared humanity, and being mindful when considering negative aspects of oneself. Finally, this article suggests that self‐compassion may offer similar mental health benefits as self‐esteem, but with fewer downsides. Research is presented which shows that self‐compassion provides greater emotional resilience and stability than self‐esteem, but involves less self‐evaluation, ego‐defensiveness, and self‐enhancement than self‐esteem. Whereas self‐esteem entails evaluating oneself positively and often involves the need to be special and above average, self‐compassion does not entail self‐evaluation or comparisons with others. Rather, it is a kind, connected, and clear‐sighted way of relating to ourselves even in instances of failure, perceived inadequacy, and imperfection.     

The Moderating Effects of Age on the Relationships of Self‐Compassion,Self‐Esteem,and Mental Health

This study investigated the interactive effects of self‐compassion, self‐esteem, and age on mental health. Numerous previous studies have found that self‐compassion has a significant positive association with well‐being but most of these studies were conducted with young adults represented by college students. This study extended the previous findings by comparing its distinctive functions in different age groups. A total of 1,813 adults whose age ranged from twenties to fifties (M = 39.28 years, SD = 11.27) completed a questionnaire measuring self‐compassion, self‐esteem, subjective well‐being, and depression. The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the positive relationship between self‐compassion and subjective well‐being was rendered stronger with older adults. In addition, self‐compassion moderated the relationship between self‐esteem and depression regardless of age. These results imply that self‐compassion may be complimentary to self‐esteem in improving mental health, especially for older adults.     

Old Wine in New Bottles? The Case of Self‐compassion and Neuroticism

Research on self‐compassion, which is defined as being understanding and kind to oneself when confronted with negative experiences, has produced an impressive number of articles in recent years. This research shows that individual differences in self‐compassion, as measured by the Self‐Compassion Scale (SCS), are positively related to life satisfaction, health and social functioning. However, a critical and systematic test of self‐compassion from a personality perspective has not yet conducted so far. In the present study (N = 576), we (i) tested the factor structure of the SCS, (ii) examined the distinctiveness of self‐compassion with regard to the five‐factor model of personality, focusing on neuroticism, and (iii) tested the incremental predictive power of self‐compassion beyond the five‐factor model in the context of life satisfaction. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a two‐factor plus six facets solution of self‐compassion (a positive factor and a negative factor). Additional analyses revealed that the negative factor was redundant with facets of neuroticism (rs ≥ .85), whereas the positive factor had some unique variance left. However, neither the negative factor nor the positive factor could explain substantial incremental variance in life satisfaction beyond neuroticism. Recommendations for how to use the SCS are provided, and the future of research on self‐compassion is discussed. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Self‐Compassion as a Facet of Neuroticism? A Reply to the Comments of Neff,Tóth‐Király,and Colosimo (2018)

In this paper, we respond to comments by Neff et al. (2018) made about our finding that the negative dimensions of self‐compassion were redundant with facets of neuroticism (rs ≥ 0.85; Pfattheicher et al., 2017) and not incrementally valid. We first provide epistemological guidance for establishing psychological constructs, namely, three hurdles that new constructs must pass: theoretically and empirically sound measurement, discriminant validity, and incremental validity—and then apply these guidelines to the self‐compassion scale. We then outline that the critique of Neff et al. (2018) is contestable. We question their decisions concerning data‐analytic methods that help them to circumvent instead of passing the outlined hurdles. In a reanalysis of the data provided by Neff et al. (2018), we point to several conceptual and psychometric problems and conclude that self‐compassion does not overcome the outlined hurdles. Instead, we show that our initial critique of the self‐compassion scale holds and that its dimensions are best considered facets of neuroticism. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Self‐compassion Is Best Measured as a Global Construct and Is Overlapping with but Distinct from Neuroticism: A Response to Pfattheicher,Geiger, Hartung,Weiss, and Schindler (2017)

Pfattheicher and colleagues recently published an article entitled ‘Old Wine in New Bottles? The Case of Self‐compassion and Neuroticism’ that argues the negative items of the Self‐compassion Scale (SCS), which represent reduced uncompassionate self‐responding, are redundant with neuroticism (especially its depression and anxiety facets) and do not evidence incremental validity in predicting life satisfaction. Using potentially problematic methods to examine the factor structure of the SCS (higher‐order confirmatory factor analysis), they suggest a total self‐compassion score should not be used and negative items should be dropped. In Study 1, we present a reanalysis of their data using what we argue are more theoretically appropriate methods (bifactor exploratory structural equation modelling) that support use of a global self‐compassion factor (explaining 94% of item variance) over separate factors representing compassionate and reduced uncompassionate self‐responding. While self‐compassion evidenced a large correlation with neuroticism and depression and a small correlation with anxiety, it explained meaningful incremental validity in life satisfaction compared with neuroticism, depression, and anxiety. Findings were replicated in Study 2, which examined emotion regulation. Study 3 established the incremental validity of negative items with multiple well‐being outcomes. We conclude that although self‐compassion overlaps with neuroticism, the two constructs are distinct. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Dispositional Attachment Orientations,Contextual Variations in Attachment Security,and Compassion Fatigue Among Volunteers Working With Traumatized Individuals

In the present article, we report a series of studies examining the links between attachment orientations and compassion fatigue among volunteers working with traumatized individuals. Participants were volunteers in several trauma‐related organizations, ranging in age from 18 to 69 years. In Study 1 (N = 148), we examined associations between self‐reports of attachment insecurities and compassion fatigue. In Study 2 (N = 54), we used a diary design to assess attachment‐related differences in emotional reactions to actual helping encounters over a 2‐month period. In Study 3 (N = 108), we examined the effects of the experimental enhancement of attachment security (security priming) on reactions to a hypothetical helping encounter. As expected, attachment insecurities, either anxiety or avoidance, were associated with heightened compassion fatigue. Moreover, security priming reduced compassion fatigue in response to a hypothetical helping encounter. These findings underscore the relevance of attachment theory for understanding and preventing compassion fatigue.     

Linking Emotion to the Conflict Face‐Negotiation Theory: A U.S.–China Investigation of the Mediating Effects of Anger,Compassion, and Guilt in Interpersonal Conflict

This study linked emotion to the theoretical assumptions of the face‐negotiation theory and probed the critical role of anger, compassion, and guilt in understanding the complex pathways of their relationships with self‐construal, face concerns, and conflict styles in U.S. and Chinese cultures. Results showed that anger was associated positively with independent self‐construal, self‐face concern, and the competing style, and compassion was associated positively with interdependent self‐construal, other‐face concern, and the integrating, compromising, and obliging styles. Guilt was related positively with interdependent self‐construal and the obliging style in the United States, and with interdependent self‐construal and the avoiding style in China. Overall, emotion mediated the effects of self‐construal and face concerns on conflict styles in both cultures, but cultural differences also emerged.     

Sexual self‐concept,sexual satisfaction,and attachment among single and coupled individuals

The aim of this study was to examine the moderating role of attachment styles among single and coupled participants (N = 632) in the associations between sexual self‐concept (sexual self‐esteem, sexual depression, and sexual preoccupation) and sexual satisfaction. The results indicated lower sexual self‐esteem and sexual satisfaction and higher sexual depression and avoidant attachment among singles, as compared to coupled participants. Furthermore, in coupled participants (securely, anxiously, and avoidantly attached), sexual self‐esteem and sexual depression were predictors of sexual satisfaction. Among securely, fearfully, and avoidantly attached singles, sexual self‐esteem was a predictor of sexual satisfaction. Sexual satisfaction was also predicted by sexual preoccupation among avoidantly attached singles. Finally, the only predictor of sexual satisfaction among anxiously attached singles was sexual depression.     

Improving Women's Self‐Compassion Through an Online Program: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The benefits of self‐compassion interventions have been well documented in the counseling literature. Despite these benefits, access to such interventions remains a considerable barrier for a range of populations. We addressed the issue of limited access by using a randomized controlled trial to evaluate an online, self‐guided course on self‐compassion specifically targeted toward women. Fifty‐seven women were randomly assigned to receive immediate or delayed access to a 10‐week course designed to increase self‐compassion and reduce self‐judgment, shame, and perfectionism. Analysis of the data revealed that participants in the treatment condition experienced significant increases in self‐compassion and decreases in self‐judgment, shame, and perfectionism compared with participants in the wait‐list group. Results provide evidence that self‐compassion can be fostered in a nonclinical population of women through participation in a self‐paced online course. Related findings and potential implications, including the use of such interventions to address accessibility concerns, are discussed within the existing literature.     

Compassion‐Based Meditation in African Americans: Self‐Criticism Mediates Changes in Depression

This study examines self‐criticism as a mechanism through which compassion meditation reduces depressive symptoms in low‐income African American men and women (N  = 59) who had recently attempted suicide. After completing several measures, including the Levels of Self‐Criticism Scale and Beck Depression Inventory‐II , participants were randomly assigned to receive either a six‐session compassion meditation (CM ) group (Grady Compassion and Meditation Program) or a six‐session support group. As predicted, path analysis results showed that treatment condition led to changes in self‐criticism from pre‐ to posttreatment, with those receiving CM showing greater reductions in levels of self‐criticism than those randomized to the support group. Path analyses also revealed that changes in self‐criticism fully mediated the link between condition and changes in depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the importance and value of targeting levels of self‐criticism in compassion‐based interventions to reduce the depressive symptoms of suicidal African Americans.     

Does a short self‐compassion intervention for students increase healthy self‐regulation? A randomized control trial

The primary aim of this study was to examine the effects of a two‐week self‐compassion course on healthy self‐regulation (personal growth self‐efficacy and healthy impulse control) and unhealthy self‐regulation (self‐judgment and habitual negative self‐directed thinking) in university students. We also examined the effects on self‐compassion, anxiety and depression. Students (N = 158, 85% women, mean age = 25 years) were randomized to an intervention group and a waiting‐list control group in a multi‐baseline randomized control trial. Healthy self‐control was measured by the Personal Growth Initiative Scale (PGIS) and the Self‐Control Scale; unhealthy self‐control was measured by the Non‐judgement subscale from the Five‐Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (reversed) and the Habit Index of Negative Thinking (HINT). Secondary outcomes were measured by the State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI‐trait), the Major Depression Inventory (MDI), and the Self‐Compassion Scale (SCS). A 2 × 3 repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed gains for the intervention‐group in personal growth self‐efficacy and healthy impulse‐control and reductions in self‐judgment and habitual negative self‐directed thinking, as well as increases in self‐compassion and reductions in anxiety and depression. After all participants had completed the course, the groups were combined and repeated measures ANOVAs showed that changes remained at six‐month follow‐up for personal growth self‐efficacy, self‐judgment and habitual negative self‐directed thinking; as well as for self‐compassion, anxiety and depression. Concluding, a short self‐compassion course seems an effective method of increasing self‐compassion and perceived control over one's life for university students, as well as increasing mental health.     

Exploring the social side of self‐compassion: Relations with empathy and outgroup attitudes

Self‐compassion is a disposition involving compassionate attitudes toward the self when facing difficulties. We argued that specific self‐compassion components might influence indicators of openness to others, such as empathy and outgroup attitudes. We hypothesized that the component called common humanity versus isolation, involving the acknowledgement that one's sufferings are shared with all the other humans, would be positively related to the other‐oriented aspects of empathy, perspective taking and empathic concern, and to improved outgroup attitudes. We also hypothesized that the mindfulness versus over‐identification component, i.e., having a balanced view of one's situation avoiding exaggerations, would be associated with lowered personal distress. In three studies, with three independent samples, we regressed empathy and outgroup attitudes on self‐compassion components, while controlling for concurrent predictors such as self‐construal and attachment styles. Results supported our hypotheses, suggesting that improvements in empathy and outgroup attitudes may be fostered by positive individual dispositions.     

Self‐Compassion as a Mediator of Mindfulness and Compassion for Others

Mindfulness and self‐compassion have garnered interest as tools for improving counselor wellness and performance, yet little is known about how they relate to compassion. Compassion—for oneself and others—is considered important to counselor well‐being and effective counseling. In Buddhist and current models, mindfulness is theorized to increase self‐compassion and, subsequently, compassion for others, but the study of these proposed relationships is limited. Using mediation analysis, the author confirmed self‐compassion as a mediator of mindfulness and compassion for others among 152 master's‐level counseling interns. Implications and practical application of mindfulness and self‐compassion for counselor development are discussed.     

Experiential avoidance and self‐compassion in chronic pain

The present study investigates the role of coping, experiential avoidance, and self‐compassion on psychological distress prediction (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms). A battery of self‐report questionnaires was used to assess coping, experiential avoidance, self‐compassion, and psychological distress in 103 adults with chronic pain from Portuguese primary health care units. Hierarchical regression analyses were performed and showed that experiential avoidance and self‐compassion are the factors that mostly explain psychological distress. Our results suggest that when people with chronic pain are willing to remain in contact with particular private experiences without attempting to control them, they reported less depression, anxiety, and stress. Implications for clinical practice were discussed, suggesting the importance of helping people with chronic pain to increase their willingness to pain rather than avoiding it.     

A pilot exploration of the use of compassionate images in a group of self‐critical people

Self‐criticism has long been associated with a variety of psychological problems and is often a key focus for intervention in psychotherapy. Recent work has suggested that self‐critics have underelaborated and underdeveloped capacities for compassionate self‐soothing and warmth. This pilot study developed a diary for monitoring self‐attacking and self‐soothing thoughts and images. It also explored the personal experiences of a group of volunteer self‐critics from the local depression support group who were given training in self‐soothing and self‐compassion. Although using small numbers, this study suggests the potential value of developing more complex methodologies for studying the capacity for self‐compassion, interventions to increase self‐compassion (including imagery techniques), and their effects on mental health.     

How self‐compassion moderates the effect of body surveillance on subjective happiness and depression among women

According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), being treated as an object leads women to engage in self‐objectification, which in turn increases body surveillance and body shame as well as impairs mental health. However, very little is known about what factors could act as buffers against the detrimental consequences of self‐objectification. This paper seeks to understand the role of self‐compassion (the ability to kindly accept oneself or show self‐directed kindness while suffering) in the perception that women have of their own bodies. Results indicate that self‐compassion moderated the effect of body surveillance on depression and happiness separately among women. More specifically, for women low in self‐compassion, body surveillance was negatively associated with happiness, which was explained by increased depression. In sum, our results indicate that self‐compassion protects against the detrimental consequences of body surveillance.     

“A definite feel‐it moment”: Embodiment,externalisation and emotion during chair‐work in compassion‐focused therapy

Chair‐work is an experiential method used within compassion‐focused therapy (CFT) to apply compassion to various aspects of the self. This is the first study of CFT chair‐work and is focused on clients' lived experiences of a chair‐work intervention for self‐criticism. Twelve participants with depression were interviewed following the chair‐work intervention and the resulting data were examined using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Three superordinate themes were identified: “embodiment and enactment,” “externalising the self in physical form” and “emotional intensity.” The findings suggest the importance of accessing and expressing various emotions connected with self‐criticism, whilst highlighting the potential for client distress and avoidance during the intervention. The role of embodying, enacting and physically situating aspects of the self in different chairs is also suggested to be an important mechanism of change in CFT chair‐work. The findings are discussed in terms of clinical implications, emphasising how core CFT concepts and practices are facilitated by the chair‐work process.     

Receipt of interpersonal citizenship: fostering agentic emotion,cognition, and action in organizations

With an eye to fostering an energized and empowered workforce, we explore the discrete emotion of self‐assurance (characterized by boldness, pride, and audacity), investigating how receipt of interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB) fuels this agentic emotion. ICB includes acts of everyday concern that may be of a person‐ or task‐focused nature. With two survey samples, we propose and test a model that situates self‐assurance as a mechanism linking ICB‐receipt to employee thriving and empowerment. Additionally, we find links to citizenship enactment, as reported by coworkers. Notably, person‐focused ICB‐receipt may be just as beneficial to self‐assurance as task‐focused ICB‐receipt. These results hold equally for working women and men. Our multi‐study, multi‐source results underscore the role of agentic emotion in cultivating a proactive workforce.