对应偏差产生的心理机制

对应偏差 (ｃｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｅｎｔｂｉａｓ)亦称为过分归因偏差 (ｏｖｅｒａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ)或基本归因错误 (ｆｕｎｄａ ｍｅｎｔａｌａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎｅｒｒｏｒ) ,指的是人们在解释他人的行为时 ,夸大行动者个人内在因素 ,低估外在环境因素 ,甚至在行为是由明显的外在环境因素造成的情况下 ,也是如此。对应偏差在西方研究了3 0多年 ,被认为是“社会心理学最活跃 ,被重复证明最多”的重要现象[1 ] 。本文综述的便是西方对对应偏差产生的心理机制的研究。1　Ｇｉｌｂｅｒｔ＆Ｍａｌｏｎｅ的理论　　Ｇｉｌｂｅｒｔ＆Ｍａ…     

The Association Between Strength of Religious Faith and Coping with American Terrorism Regarding the Events of September 11, 2001

This study examined the association between strength of religious faith and coping with the terrorist attacks in New York City, Washington DC, and Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001, the resulting war in Afghanistan, and subsequent anthrax attacks. The participants included 97 students from a West Coast Catholic university. Measures included the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, the Symptom Check List-90-Revised, the Impact of Event Scale, a 10-point stress, coping, and importance of faith scale, and an author-developed questionnaire assessing demographic as well as qualitative questions regarding coping with terrorism. Results suggest that strength of religious faith was not associated with coping with terrorism.     

September 11 and the Role of the Theologian

As is the case with all “disasters” the nation is experiencing the various psychological stages to the September 11, 2001 disaster: threat, warning, impact, inventory, heroism, honeymoon, disillusionment, and reconstruction. In order for healing to occur from and within the religious community, theologians, pastors, and religiously–minded people must enter into these different stages of disaster and suffer–with the community. Instead of explaining September 11 from an abstract, removed stance, we ought to reveal our concerns and uncertainties about God in this situation and wonder with the rest of the community of grievers, “How has this happened?” From this place, true healing and reconstruction of the community will be possible.     

Dread risk, September 11, and fatal traffic accidents

Abstract— People tend to fear dread risks, that is, low-probability, high-consequence events, such as the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001. If Americans avoided the dread risk of flying after the attack and instead drove some of the unflown miles, one would expect an increase in traffic fatalities. This hypothesis was tested by analyzing data from the U.S. Department of Transportation for the 3 months following September 11. The analysis suggests that the number of Americans who lost their lives on the road by avoiding the risk of flying was higher than the total number of passengers killed on the four fatal flights. I conclude that informing the public about psychological research concerning dread risks could possibly save lives.     

Termination of psychoanalysis and September 11

In the United States, the last illusion of safety from problems in distant parts of the world was shattered on September 11, 2001. Psychoanalysts are in a unique position to both experience and examine how such a man-made social disaster becomes internalized and affects one's psychic reality by studying the effects of that day on patients already engaged in a psychoanalytic process. The author hypothesizes that in one such case, that of Mr. N, the termination phase was significantly affected. Furthermore, Mr. N's reaction to reading the analyst's clinical write-up further influenced the termination phase.     

Ingroup Bias, Classic Ethnocentrism, and Non-Ethnocentrism Among American Whites

This study collapsed ingroup bias into two types: a classic Sumnerian type, in which favorable perceptions of the ingroup were linked to unfavorable perceptions of the outgroup, and a simple ingroup bias type that consisted of all other instances of ingroup superiority. Simple ingroup bias was the more common type among a General Social Survey (GSS) national probability sample of 1,119 non-Jewish whites who rated Jews, blacks, Asians, and Hispanics on five traits. The two types appear to represent different points on an ethnocentrism continuum; thus, researchers who do not distinguish between them may underestimate the possible impact of ethnocentrism. The generally low levels of classic ethnocentrism did increase for people low in education or high in authoritarianism or social distance. The research also tested an ethnocentrism typology. Many respondents fell into two nonclassic ethnocentrism categories: positivity (where own-group and other-group ratings are both favorable) and neutral matching.     

September 11th,an attack at the limits of thought

The paper deals with imagination and its failures from a psychoanalytic perspective. We offer a definition of imagination failures and suggest how they can be interpreted as an opportunity to learn from experience. In order to show that the topic has a concrete and not only speculative significance we consider the public report on September 11 as a case study. The report was published by the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States after a long investigation of the facts and circumstances relating to the September 11 attacks. The document has been the object of strong criticisms, as we argue in the paper. Both the document and some of the critiques that it received focus, however, on significant aspects of the debate about imagination, such us the fragility of imaginative thought, its dependence on unconscious desires and its plurality of outcomes: a plethora of imaginaries can in fact be developed at any time, from the same set of information about reality. We comment on these aspects and reinterpret them from a Bionian perspective. The concepts of ‘unthinkability’, ‘imagination failure’ and ‘depressive position’ are used to inform the necessity of dealing with an evolving and conflictual geopolitical scenario. Particular attention is paid to the proposal of ‘routinizing, even bureaucratizing, the exercise of imagination’ within the institutions that deal with National Defense. This possibility is discussed in depth in order to suggest how it may be concretely implemented. In conclusion, a strong case is made for the usefulness of psychoanalytic reflection in the arena of relationships among countries, with particular emphasis on the new terrorist challenges.     

Changes in attitudes towards war and violence after September 11, 2001

Two inter-related studies examined the effect of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on attitudes towards war and violence. A three-wave between-subjects analysis revealed that attitudes towards war became more positive after September 11, 2001 and remained high over a year afterwards. Self-reported trait physical aggression also rose after September 11. Attitudes towards penal code violence (PCV) became more positive immediately after September 11, but were somewhat reduced a year afterward. A two-wave within subjects study revealed that war attitudes became even more positive at 2 months post-September 11. Attitudes towards PCV became less positive during this time period, but only for women. Other aggression-related attitudes were not affected in either study. These studies demonstrate that a large-scale event can change attitudes, but those attitudes must be directly relevant to the event.     

Prayers, spiritual support, and positive attitudes in coping with the September 11 national crisis

This study was designed to help fill gaps in faith-related and positive psychology research. Psychologists have called for precise assessment of effective faith factors inherent within spiritual experiences that may explain their beneficial effects. Positive psychologists suggest the need to examine social and faith-related origins of optimism. Based on previous research, we redefined spiritual support and developed a new assessment. The study is a survey of 453 graduate and undergraduate students 3 months after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. The results showed that participants, who believed in diverse spiritual entities, used various types of prayer for coping. A structural equation model showed that a linkage of spiritual support and positive attitudes mediated the effect of faith-based and secular factors on post-September 11 distress. Higher levels of initial negative emotional response were associated with the use of prayer for coping, which was, in turn, related to less distress through the pathway of the above linkage.