智者必怀仁？智慧与美德的关系辨析

智慧与美德是独立但相互作用的心理结构。针对其关系,以往哲学家与心理学家基于个人经验和文化观念进行了大量规范性层面的理论思辨,但仍存在理论分歧（线性论、阈值论、从属论）,且缺少以定量方法为主的描述性层面的实证研究,尤其缺乏基于实验的关于“智”与“仁”双向因果关系的探索。未来研究可以借鉴实验伦理学的范式,着眼于研究特定领域、特定情境下智慧与美德之间的双向因果关系,加强中国文化背景下的智慧与美德关系的研究,并探索其潜在的认知神经机制。如何统一智慧与美德关系的“应然”与“实然”的研究,是接下来需要面临的挑战。     

智慧的特质论与状态论：分歧、统整与新解

特质论与状态论之争是智慧研究领域新兴的热门话题。特质论认为智慧是稳定且不易干预的人格特质;状态论认为智慧是一种相对容易波动的心智状态,短期内可以改变且容易受外在情境的影响。基于人格心理学研究的“密度分布说”则为特质论与状态论之争提供了系统的整合模型。受此启发,本研究在以往理论的基础上提出“特质-状态正态分布假说”,旨在进一步补充完善“密度分布说”并为特质论与状态论研究提供新的理论视角。未来研究仍需结合多种智慧测量手段,加强纵向追踪研究,探索智慧本质观与密度分布说的关系,开展相应的跨文化研究。     

老者智否?成人智慧与年龄的关系

智慧与年龄的关系是智慧心理学领域的重要议题。青少年时期及成年早期是智慧的萌发期为多数学者所公认,但在成年期个体的智慧与年龄关系的问题上,学界尚存在较大的理论分歧,主要有增长论、衰减论、稳定论、高原论四大观点,前两者的实证支持较少,后两者则有着较丰富的实证依据。在对上述理论进行回顾与反思的基础上,认为实证层面有三项任务最为紧迫、理论层面有六大问题值得探讨,并提出了基于"个体-情境"差异的"智慧-年龄"关系理论,试图为智慧与年龄的关系问题提供一个更深入的理解。     

忠诚与幸福关系的论证

在道德生活中,人们总是无法回避"人应该怎样生活"这一苏格拉底问题,其实质是要解决美德与幸福之间的关系。人们往往通过反思正义、智慧、节制等具体美德是否促进幸福来论证上述问题,但是鲜有人系统地论证"忠诚"与幸福的关系。忠诚对幸福的影响要么被忽略了,要么被视为对幸福不那么重要。我们试图从儒家伦理、美德论、功利论、义务论和积极心理学等维度论证忠诚对人类幸福具有某种促进作用,但是尚未找到充分的证据证明忠诚与幸福具有因果关系。     

环境美德伦理学视阈中的正确行动理论

引导行为者做出保护环境的正确行动是环境伦理学的首要任务,但正确行动理 论在环境美德伦理学中尚未引起足够重视。后果主义环境伦理学将正确行动诉诸最好的或足 够好的后果;义务论环境伦理学将正确行动解释为普遍化的道德规则;而环境美德伦理学从 美德角度来界定正确行动。整体而言,环境美德伦理学语境下的正确行动理论呈现出多样化 的研究态势,但同时还面临着“人类中心主义”“循环论证”以及“不确定性”等质疑。 澄清这些疑点,有助于推进环境美德伦理学研究的深入。     

美德伦理学为何不是一个错误的分类范畴

玛莎·努斯鲍姆曾被许多人误以为是美德伦理学家,她本人则声称美德伦理学是一个 “混乱的且令人混乱的”分类范畴,并不存在着美德伦理学这样的事情。然而,她所说的“ 混乱的”美德伦理学范畴是一个过时的、错误的分类范畴。正确的规范伦理学的分类应当是 以研究进路,即以采用何种基本概念作为其理论的逻辑起点来区别其理论类别,如此,正确 的美德伦理学范畴应当是以美德概念作为其理论的基本概念和逻辑起点,而美德概念可以成 为这样的基本概念和逻辑起点。因此,美德伦理学并不是一个错误的分类范畴,它可以是并 且是与功利主义和义务论鼎足而立的三大规范伦理学的研究进路之一。     

美德伦理学视角下的“大地伦理”

奥尔多·利奥波德的“大地伦理”把道德关怀扩展到了人与土地之间的关系,开创了生态中心主义的伦理学.但是他的“大地伦理”思想却具有义务论的理论缺陷.为了规避其理论困境,比尔·肖从美德伦理学角度重新诠释了“大地伦理”,提出了“大地美德”思想,希望通过对人的态度及其品质的关注,消解人与自然的矛盾,为致力于“大地伦理”的人提供了新的理论视野.     

孟子“仁”与“义”美德伦理学的理路及其问题

孟子的“仁”“义”观念分别指示出美德的根源以及美德行为的呈现,以此为核心的孟子式美德伦理学的基本理路有三：一是美德是人类特有且应有的生活方式;二是诸美德各有其特定的道德含义,并构成具有层次和结构的美德体系;三是美德应该依次呈现于家庭、社会和政治生活,并发挥基础性作用。其美德概念可以回应三方面的问题,即美德的约束力、美德的驱动力、美德的实现问题。其特点主要有其作为美德学说的整全性,其思想实验与对直觉的诉诸,以及其明确的元伦理维度。作为一种传统理论,孟子式美德伦理学要转化为当代形态,有待解决的主要问题在于其元伦理维度包含的形而上学独断因素。对于其理论的独断因素,可以有三条化解路径,即康德式路径、当代道德心理学的路径、反思平衡的方法;对其现实基础性美德即“孝”蕴含的独断因素,可以从两个方面入手来化解,一是回到孔子的相关观点,二是借鉴当代伦理学对美德如何始于家庭的道德心理学解释。     

情境适应性人工智能道德决策何以可能——基于美德伦理的道德机器学习

现实道德情境的复杂性对人工智能道德决策的深度应用构成了极大挑战，义务论和功利主义算法“自上而下”的路径无法成功应对这一挑战；相反，美德伦理“自下而上”的路径为应对这一挑战提供了丰富的理论资源。具体来说，美德模范的“仿效”式学习和注重道德经验的“实践智慧”既保证了道德决策的情境敏感性，又确保了复杂情境道德决策的可靠性。更为关键的是，这两种“自下而上”的美德习得路径与一些机器学习方法高度相洽。因此，美德伦理可以作为情境适应性人工智能道德决策的伦理基础。     

中文阅读中因果与转折关系理解差异的实验研究

采用移动窗口阅读技术和探测技术探讨大学生中文阅读过程中对因果与转折关系的理解差异。实验一在句子层面考察因果和转折关系的理解差异,结果发现被试阅读转折句的时间显著长于因果句,但对两种句子中探测词的反应时没有差异。实验二运用探测技术从篇章层面进一步探讨两种关系的理解差异。结果发现,转折关系条件下被试对探测词的反应时显著慢于因果关系条件下。实验结果表明,无论在句子层面还是在篇章层面,被试对转折关系的表征都难于因果关系的表征。     

GSR as reflection of decision-making under conditions of delay

A total of 15 healthy individuals of both sexes, aged from 18 to 30 years, were studied. The subjects were presented a series of three audio signals in each of two conditions. Under condition A the subject made a fist immediately after the third signal if all the three sounds were identical; under condition B, a fist was made if at least one sound was different from the other two. The GSR was particularly pronounced when the decision to make or not to make a fist was made under conditions where action was delayed.     

Evaluation of methods of using resource people in helping kindergarten students become aware of the world of work

The major purpose of the study was to determine if a kindergarten child could be made aware of the world of work. A second purpose was to determine if kindergarten children could be made aware of how their parents use money for family expenditures.     

Aspects of the study of modern Biology in The Netherlands

Summary In the above article endeavours have been made to outline the development of Biology in the Netherlands during the last 20 years. At Utrecht under the supervision of A. A. Pulle studies have been made of the flora in the Malayan Archipelago. Internationally Dirks and Verdoorn in particular have acquired great merit in Botany. In 1935 the sixth International Botanical Congress was organised in Amsterdam.     

情绪智力理论结构的实证研究

本文对Ｓａｌｏｖｅｙ和Ｍａｙｅｒ提出的情绪智力理论结构进行了因子分析研究,证明了该结构基本变量个体反应的合理性,但对其因子分类提出了不同的理论分析和分类解释;对Ｇｏｌｅｍａｎ的情绪智力结构进行了比较研究;为编制“情绪智力量表”作了必要的理论准备。     

Matching of Movements Made Independently by the Two Arms in Normal Humans

Comparisons were made of voluntary movements of the right and left arms in normal human subjects. A series of movements of different amplitudes, made at the subject’s own speed, was performed with one limb. After a rest period, the same series was repeated with the contralateral limb. The relation between movement peak velocity and movement amplitude was linear and was the same for both arms. With repeated testing over periods up to two months, the slope of the peak velocity—amplitude relation decreased during the first week, thereafter remaining unchanged. In a second series of experiments, six normal subjects continuously wore a 1 lb (0.45 kg) weight strapped to their left (non-dominant) forearm for up to 1 week. This resulted in an increase in the slope of the peak-velocity/amplitude relation in this arm. A parallel change occurred in movements made independently by the right (non-loaded) arm. A similar matching of movement performance of the two limbs was seen following removal of the weight. The data is interpreted as providing support for the hypothesis that there is a single movement “command” which is applied to both limbs. The interaction of this command with the limbs which have similar second-order mechanical properties yields similar movements even when they are made independently.     

Matching of movements made independently by the two arms in normal humans

Comparisons were made of voluntary movements of the right and left arms in normal human subjects. A series of movements of different amplitudes, made at the subject' own speed, was performed with one limb. After a rest period, the same series was repeated with the contralateral limb. The relation between movement peak velocity and movement amplitude was linear and was the same for both arms. With repeated testing over periods up to two months, the slope of the peak velocity-amplitude relation decreased during the first week, thereafter remaining unchanged. In a second series of experiments, six normal subjects continuously wore a 1 lb (0.45 kg) weight strapped to their left (non-dominant) forearm for up to 1 week. This resulted in an increase in the slope of the peak-velocity/amplitude relation in this arm. A parallel change occurred in movements made independently by the right (non-loaded) arm. A similar matching of movement performance of the two limbs was seen following removal of the weight. The data is interpreted as proving support for the hypothesis that there is a single movement "command" which is applied to both limbs. The interaction of this command with the limbs which have similar second-order mechanical properties yields similar movements even when they are made independently.     

A survey of celiac-sprue patients: effect of dietary restrictions on religious practices

Celiac-Sprue Disease, also referred to as Non-Tropical Sprue, is a dietary disease. Celiac-Sprue patients were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding the effect of dietary restrictions on participation in the Passover meal and reception of Communion. A pilot study suggested that subjects made changes in their religious practices because of dietary restrictions. A second, more detailed survey, was performed in which 58 subjects participated and 14 religions were represented. The results indicated that many subjects made changes in their religious practices (p less than .01), made changes on their own initiative (p less than .01), or violated diet prescribed for the disease under the religious setting versus other settings (p less than .05).     

Use of Reinforcement Technique with a First Grade Boy

A reinforcement technique in counseling was used to modify a first grader's attending behavior. Pre- and post-counseling measurements were made and cumulative records were kept of attending time in counseling sessions and in arithmetic lessons, and a record was kept of completion vs. noncompletion of arithmetic assignments. The assessments made in regard to the arithmetic lessons enabled an investigation of transfer effects from counseling to the academic area. An investigation of transfer effects was also informally made relative to other school situations. Results showed increased attending behavior in counseling and in the classroom, and a marked improvement in completion of assignments, and were interpreted as supporting the use of a behavioral approach in elementary school counseling.     

The effects of effort toward comprehension on recall

Four experiments examined free recall of generally incomprehensible sentences with appropriate cues that made the sentences comprehensible. A distinction is made between processes involved in an effort toward comprehension and elaboration processes that occur following comprehension. It was found that providing additional time for effort toward comprehension enhanced recall, while providing additional time for elaboration following comprehension did not enhance recall. It was also shown that the effects of effort toward comprehension were contingent upon eventual understanding of the sentence.     

A follow-up investigation of families referred to outside agencies

A follow-up study was conducted to determine the outcome of 254 referrals made by 47 school psychologists in New York and New Jersey. The referrals represented randomly selected cases in which the recommendation was made to the families of elementary school childred to use service external to the school setting. Evaluation of referral outcome was determined in light of the reason prompting the referral recommendation. Explanations for the outcome of referrals summarized in this investigation were advanced and the limitations of this study noted.