Exercise and mood: A selective review and synthesis of research employing the profile of mood states

Abstract

This paper highlights the use of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) in physical activity research by reviewing and synthesizing literature generated in exercise settings. The results of many studies using the POMS have supported the relationships between exercise and acute mood changes in normal populations and between exercise and chronic mood changes in clinical populations. Based on the multitude of studies utilizing the POMS, Berger and colleagues developed a preliminary taxonomy containing enjoyment, mode, and practice guidelines to help maximize the mood benefits associated with exercise. The POMS also has been employed to identify underlying mechanisms that may promote mood alteration. Unfortunately, there is no conclusive evidence that identifies a single mechanism or group of mechanisms as consistently influencing the exercise-mood relationship. Although knowledge of the relationship between exercise and mood alteration is substantial, much remains to be studied. Promising avenues for future investigation of exercise include mood changes in specific populations, environmental influences on mood alteration, and personal characteristics impacting mood alteration.     

The influence of self-reported exercise addiction on acute emotional and physiological responses to brief exercise deprivation

Objectives: To examine the association between self-reported exercise addiction among competitive runners and their emotional and physiological response to a one-day deprivation from scheduled training.Design: A controlled experiment was utilised with random selection to exercise-deprived and control groups to examine the causal link between acute exercise deprivation and the presence and magnitude of withdrawal symptoms.Method: Club-level runners (n=60) who had been training at least five times weekly towards a major regional competition (30 women and 30 men, average age: 24.2 years) volunteered to abstain from a one-day training fixture with less than 24-hours’ notice. All subjects completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Running Addiction Scale (RAS) and resting heart rate (RHR) measurements. From this group, 15 men and 15 women were randomly selected to miss the next scheduled training (exercise-deprived group), while the remaining 30 runners continued their training uninterrupted (controls). Both groups repeated POMS and RHR measures within 24 hours after the experiment.Results: The exercise-deprived group reported significant withdrawal-like symptoms of depressed mood, reduced vigour and increased tension, anger, fatigue and confusion (measured by POMS), as well as significantly elevated RHR, within 24 hours after the missed training session. The control group showed no changes in mood or RHR. More importantly, the observed negative mood changes and RHR response in the exercise-deprived group were moderated by self-reported exercise addiction. The sub-median RAS scorers experienced significantly less mood change and RHR shifts than the higher scoring half of the sample. Further, correlations between RAS scores and the magnitude of increases in tension, anger, confusion, depression and RHR ranged from 0.46 to 0.58.Conclusions: Self-reported exercise addiction in habitual exercisers moderates their emotional and physiological responses to a short-term controlled exercise deprivation, indicating that the magnitude of these responses may, in turn, serve as early markers of exercise dependence.     

Mood change and marathon running: A pilot study using a Swedish version of the POMS test

Regular exercise is said to have positive effects on mood, especially if the exercise intensity is low to moderate. However, the acute effects resulting from participation in a strenuous competition, such as a marathon race, have been studied less. The present investigation used the Profile of Mood States (POMS) test to measure mood, before and after the 1989 Stockholm Marathon. A total of 106 male runners (mean age 40.0 years), with finishing times between 3h and 3h 45 min participated as subjects. Results showed great changes between pre- and post-marathon scores, most of them significant at the p less than 0.001 level. Furthermore, differences between a faster and a slower group of runners were demonstrated with regard to mood states, even though plasma glucose levels were comparable. It is concluded that participation in a marathon race greatly effects mood, mainly in a more negative way than low to moderately intense exercise does.     

Mood changes after maximal exercise testing in subjects with symptoms of exercise dependence

Considering exercise has positive and negative reinforcing properties, the mood states of sedentary, nonexercise-dependent and exercise-dependent volunteers were compared after maximal exercise testing. Mood status was evaluated by the Beck Depression Inventory, Trait-State Anxiety Inventory, and Profile of Mood States (POMS). No differences were detected before the test or after it, indicating little possibility of positive reinforcement. However, a significant reduction in the POMS Tension-Anxiety scores was observed in both exerciser groups (greater in the exercise-dependent group) but not in the sedentary group. Only in the exercise-dependent group were significant reductions in Anger and Total Mood Disorders scores observed compared with their pre-exercise scores. These data suggest that exercising has stronger negative reinforcement properties for exercise-dependent volunteers and is a factor which could increase the odds of their becoming dependent on exercise.     

Profile of Mood States Research in Sport and Exercise Psychology: Past,Present, and Future

Abstract

A review was conducted of the sport and exercise literature for the years 1971 to early 1998 in which the Profile of Mood States (POMS) figured prominently. Analyses indicated that there were 258 published articles in which the POMS was used with athletic or exercise samples during this time period. Of these articles, 226 were data-based and the remainder dealt with general, theoretical, or psychometric issues. Prominent journals publishing the data-based research, leading authors, sport samples used, gender issues, and temporal trends in the use of the POMS were noted. Anticipated future developments include: improvements in research methodologies used to study relationships among sport, exercise, and mood; continued validation of abbreviated forms of the scale as well as a form for use with youth samples; and increased utilization of the POMS for mood profiling.     

Behavioral and physiological responses of young horses to different weaning protocols: a pilot study

In this study, effects of weaning on behavioral and physiological stress parameters in young horses (foals) were determined. Foals were weaned either simultaneously without the presence of adult horses (group A, n?=?6), or in the presence of two adult females familiar but unrelated to the foals (group B, n?=?5), or weaned consecutively by removing two mother horses per day (group C, n?=?6). Behavior, locomotion, salivary cortisol concentration, beat-to-beat (RR) interval, heart rate variability (HRV) and weight were determined. Group A foals lost weight for 2 days (mean?±?SEM) -?8.3?±?1.6?kg, p?相似文献   

Effets d’une intervention courte en tai-chi-chuan sur le sentiment d’efficacité, l’anxiété et les troubles émotionnels chez des étudiants ayant un style de vie sédentaire

The aim of this study was to explore the effects of a short-term intervention of a tai-chi mind–body approach on general self-efficacy, anxiety and mood among students with sedentary lifestyle. Twenty-six sedentary subjects aged 19–28 (mean [SD] 23.1 [2.5]) recruited from a university residence, participated in a randomised controlled trial of a 60-min exercise session conducted 10 times, with allocation to tai-chi-chuan mind–body approach or control. The main measure was the General Self-Efficacy Scale, secondary measure were the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The above findings indicated that a 3-week of intensive Tai-chi mind–body approach is sufficient to improve general self-efficacy, mood and reduced anxiety among students with sedentary lifestyle.     

Changes in Sexual Functioning and Mood Among Women Treated for Gynecological Cancer Who Receive Group Therapy: A Pilot Study

This study examined changes in sexual functioning and mood disturbance among women who have been treated for gynecological cancer and who participated in a 12-week group intervention for psychosexual problems. The Changes in Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ) assessed the sexual functioning, and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) assessed the mood disturbance of 19 women at baseline who completed follow-ups conducted posttreatment and three-month posttreatment. The results showed that the women improved significantly in their CSFQ total scores after being provided with the group therapy intervention at the posttreatment assessment (p < .01), and a statistical trend (p < .10) suggested continued improvement in CSFQ total scores at the three months posttreatment follow-up. Women's POMS total mood disturbance scores improved significantly at the posttreatment assessment (p = .01), but did not show significant improvement at the 3-month posttreatment follow-up. These results suggest that this group intervention achieved its main goal in treating sexual dysfunction as well as mood disturbance, but these improvements dissipated over time and may require further intervention in order to be maintained.     

A Negative Mood Induction Procedure with Efficacy Across Repeated Administrations in Women

Although several experimental techniques are effective in inducing negative mood, none has established efficacy over repeated testing. The lack of mood induction tools validated across repeated administrations impedes study of emotional changes in the same individual over time. A brief, sad mood induction combining music and an autobiographical memory was administered to 17 women on 6 occasions (two 3-day sets over a 2-week period of time). Mood was measured before and after the induction procedure. Repeated measures ANOVAs showed that the induction produced a large increase in POMS depression (d = 1.48) that recurred consistently across all testing days. A brief negative mood induction combining music and autobiographical memory appears suitable for use in studies that involve repeated administrations.     

简明心境量表(POMS)在中国的试用报告

该研究引进ＰＯＭＳ,采用随机对照的方法将２８９名放化疗病人分成实验组和对照组,分别在治疗前中后测查三次,同时测查３８５名正常人,以验证其在中国大陆的适用情况。研究发现：ＰＯＭＳ各量表同质性信度高,三种方法检验的临床效度均较高,尤其是对心理干预的效果更敏感;但该问卷的区分效度不高,对正常人心境变化的敏感性不如对病人。由此得出,ＰＯＭＳ在中国大陆癌症病人中是可行的、可靠的、有效的和敏感的,可作为心理干预的一个敏感指标。     

Path analysis of exercise treatment-induced changes in psychological factors leading to weight loss

Physical activity may affect weight loss largely through psychological pathways associated with eating changes, especially in obese individuals whose caloric expenditure through exercise is typically small. Direct testing of this is, however, lacking. Previously sedentary adults (N?=?114; 77% female; M(age)?=?43.3 years), with a minimum body mass index (BMI) of 35 kg/m2 (M (BMI)?=?42.0 kg/m2), participated in a 24-week treatment of cognitive-behavioural exercise support and nutrition information. A path model based on tenets of social cognitive and self-efficacy theory was constructed. It was expected that improvements in self-efficacy, physical self-concept, body satisfaction and mood associated with the exercise treatment would predict changes in self-regulation and increased physical activity. It was also hypothesised that improvements in self-efficacy and self-regulation for appropriate eating would transfer from these relationships and predict weight loss. After three theoretically viable paths were added based on modification indices, structural equation modelling indicated a good fit with the data, χ2(16)?=?20.53, p?=?0.20; RMSEA?=?0.05; SRMR?=?0.06; CFI?=?0.97; TLI?=?0.95. Associations of psychological effects linked to exercise programme participation with predictors of appropriate eating and weight loss were found, and may inform theory, research and treatments.     

Cognitive mediation of intervention effects on physical exercise: Causal models for the adoption and maintenance stage

Objective: To investigate how the effects of a group-based intervention program (MoVo-LISA) on exercise behaviour were mediated by cognitive variables. Different causal models mapping the short-term (adoption) and long-term (maintenance) intervention effects were tested using path analyses.

Design: N?=?220 in-patients of a rehabilitation clinic were assigned to an usual care or intervention group (quasi-experimental design). Questionnaire-based assessment was conducted at baseline; discharge; and at six weeks, six months and 12 months post discharge.

Measures: The potential mediator variables were outcome expectations, self-efficacy, strength of goal intention (intention strength), self-concordance, action planning and barrier management.

Results: Observed intervention effects on exercise behaviour (p?<?0.05) were mediated by intention strength at the adoption and maintenance stages, by action planning only at the adoption, and by barrier management only at the maintenance stage. Self-efficacy and outcome expectations were only indirectly involved in these mediations by affecting intention strength and self-concordance.

Conclusion: This is the first study to track the cognitive mediation processes of intervention effects on exercise behaviour over a long time-period by differentiating the adoption and maintenance stages of behaviour change. The findings emphasise the importance of deconstructing intervention effects (modifiability vs. predictive power of a mediator) to develop more effective interventions.     

Testing mediator variables in a resistance training intervention for obese adults with type 2 diabetes

A poor understanding of behaviour change mechanisms has hindered the development of effective physical activity interventions. The aim of this study was to identify potential mediators of change in a home-based resistance training (RT) program for obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Obese individuals with type 2 diabetes (N?=?48) were randomly allocated to either an RT intervention (n?=?27) or a control group (n?=?21) for the 16-week study period. The study sample included 16 men and 32 women and the mean age of participants was 54.4 (±11.7) years. Participants in the RT group received a multi-gym and dumbbells and home supervision from a certified personal trainer. RT behaviour was measured using a modified Godin Leisure Time Questionnaire. Social-cognitive constructs were measured and tested in a mediating variable framework using a product-of-coefficients test. The intervention had a significant effect on RT behaviour (p?相似文献   

Assessment of mood states: Biases in single-administration assessments

Rasmussen, Jeffrey, Willingham, and Glover (1994) demonstrated that single-administration values derived from the Profile of Mood States (POMS) were biased estimates oftypical mood state. Like the previous study, the present study investigated whether single-administration POMS scores would be similar to average POMS scores derived from multiple administrations. In addition, in this investigation, single-administration instructions directed respondents to estimatetypical mood over a period of time that coincided with the time and duration of the multiple administrations. Subjects rated mood states during two single-administration settings, one before and one just after a multiple administration period. For both single-administration assessments, subjects rated mood relative to “How you have felt for the past 3 days, including today?” During the multiple-administration assessment, subjects rated mood six times a day for 3 days as prompted by preprogrammed wrist monitors. Results were consistent with earlier findings by identifying the bias in single-administration assessments. Initial single-administration values were significantly higher than both the averaged multiple-administration values and the second single-administration scores. These results support the contention that single-administration values from the POMS may provide biased estimates oftypical mood states.     

Anxiety and Mood States in Delinquent Adolescents

Summary: Studied the relationship between state-trait anxiety and mood states in delinquents by giving the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) (Spielberger, 1973) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) (McNair, Loft, & Droppleman, 1971) to 41 behavior problem adolescents who were residents of a facility for youthful offenders. Results indicated that males and females did not differ significantly. The A-State portion of the STAIC was correlated significantly with the Vigor-Activity and Anger-Hostility portions of the POMS as well as the Total Mood Disturbance index. On the other hand, the A-Trait portion of the STAIC was correlated significantly with the Depression-Dejection, the Tension-Anxiety, and the Fatigue-Inertia portions of the POMS as well as the Total Mood Disturbance index. Findings were discussed in terms of theft relationship to previous research and in terms of the differences in conception of affective states presented by Spielberger (1973) and McNair et al. (1971).     

Positive reactions to tobacco predict relapse after cessation

Among chronic smokers, individual differences in subjective reactions to smoking may characterize important facets of nicotine dependence that relate to abstinence-induced craving, withdrawal symptom profiles, and risk for relapse. Although the negative reinforcing properties of smoking have achieved prominent positions in models of relapse (Baker, Brandon, & Chassin, 2004), vulnerability to relapse risk may also arise from seeking positive reinforcement from smoking (Shiffman & Kirchner, 2009). In this study, 183 cessation-motivated smokers provided subjective craving, positive and negative reactions to standardized cigarettes following overnight abstinence. Level of craving, negative mood, and positive mood after overnight abstinence were significantly predictive of withdrawal on quit-day. Increased positive reactions to smoking were uniquely predictive of relapse after quitting (Hazard Ratio = 1.22, p < .001). Individual differences in positive reactions to smoking may be important markers of neurobiological systems that promote dependence and interfere with cessation efforts.     

Internet-delivered physical activity intervention for college students with mental health disorders: a randomized pilot trial

The prevalence of mental health disorders among college students is rising and the increasing rates of anxiety and depression have important societal implications. Physical activity has been proposed as an adjuvant to traditional treatment approaches (i.e. psychotherapy or pharmacotherapy), and the internet is a potentially useful means of delivering physical activity information to the college-aged population. This randomized pilot trial examined the effects of an internet-based physical activity intervention on physical activity, self-efficacy, depression, and anxiety in college students (n?=?47) receiving mental health counseling. Physical activity, depression, anxiety, exercise self-efficacy, and barriers self-efficacy were assessed at baseline and post-intervention. There was a significant time effect for physical activity, with both groups increasing their physical activity levels across the 10-week intervention but with a larger increase in the intervention condition (d?=?0.68) than the control condition (d?=?0.05). Exercise and barriers self-efficacy declined across the intervention, but more so in the control than intervention condition. Effects on depression and anxiety were nonsignificant. Finally, correlation analyses showed increases in physical activity were associated with increases in exercise self-efficacy (r?=?0.62) and barriers self-efficacy (r?=?0.63) and decreases in depression (r?=?-0.44) in the intervention condition, but not in the control condition. These results suggest that an internet-delivered physical activity intervention may be a promising approach to promoting physical activity among college students undergoing mental health counseling.     

Acute mood responses to a 15-minute long walking session at self-selected intensity: effects of an experimentally-induced telic or paratelic state

In the present controlled experiment, we examine the influence of opposite states of mind (the "telic" vs. "paratelic" state) on mood response to a 15 min long walk at self-selected pace. Fifty-five first-year students were randomized to a telic (n = 22) or paratelic (n = 33) motivational environment. These opposed motivational environments were created using established reversal theory based procedures to induce the telic versus paratelic state. More than 90% of participants walked within a motivational state corresponding to the environment they were allocated. No significant mood changes (neither positive, nor negative) occurred pre- to postexercise in participants who walked with the telic state operative (p > .05). This has important implications when considering the use of exercise to relieve depression in clinical populations. Also, our findings shed new light on the reasons why not all individuals respond in the same way to moderate exercise. Practically, these results suggest that motivational state should be considered to optimize the mood enhancing effects of aerobic exercise.     

The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression

The effectiveness of two online exercises intended to help individuals experience (1) self-compassion (n?=?63) and (2) optimism (n?=?55) were compared to a control intervention where participants wrote about an early memory (n?=?70). A battery of tests was completed at 1 week following the exercise period, and at 1-, 3-, and 6-month follow-ups. Both active interventions resulted in significant increases in happiness observable at 6 months and significant decreases in depression sustained up to 3 months. The interventions were examined in relationship to dependency and self-criticism, both related to vulnerability to depression. Individuals high in self-criticism became happier at 1 week and at 1 month in the optimism condition in the repeated measures analysis. A sensitivity test using multi-level modeling failed to replicate this effect. More mature levels of dependence (connectedness) were related to improvements in mood up to 6 months in the self-compassion condition. This study suggests that different personality orientations may show greater gains from particular types of positive psychology interventions.     

Mood change through physical exercise in nine- to ten-year-old children.

The present study assessed the effect of two types of physical exercise on the self reported mood of 64 9 and 10-yr.-old children who responded to a self-report mood meassure after two different types of aerobic exercise of 15 min., and after a 15-min. video. Significant increases in positive mood and significant decreases in negative mood were found after each exercise treatment; however, positive mood decreased and negative mood increased following the video treatment. Interestingly, no significant difference in mean mood scores was found between the two exercise treatments. These data suggest that short bouts of physical exercise have psychological benefits for children.