Reliability and stability of adult attachment patterns

A basic premise of attachment theory is that internal models of attachment remain relatively stable across the life span. We examined stability and change in adult attachment representations over 8 months in a sample of young adults (N = 144; Mean age = 24.5 years). Attachment patterns were assessed by categorical and continuous ratings across three methods—self-report ratings, expert ratings based on semi-structured interviews, and reports of romantic partners—and showed moderate stability. Interview ratings tended to show higher stability than self-report ratings. Changes in attachment ratings (across methods) were not consistently related to life events that had occurred in the intervening 8 months. The relationship between reliability and stability was discussed, and where the “true” stability could be estimated independent of unreliability, it was found to be very high (r's ranging from .72 to .96). The results highlight the importance of using multiple indicators in assessing adult attachment and using continuous rather than categorical ratings in the assessment of stability.     

Infant-mother attachment in children with failure to thrive

This study may represent an advance in the study of failure to thrive (FTT), as (1) it is the first to use the disorganized/disoriented classification of infant-mother attachment (Main & Solomon, 1990) in a study of children with FTT, and (2) it includes measures of social processes associated with individual differences in attachment. Twenty-six children with FTT (10 “organic,” 16 “nonorganic”) and 28 normally growing children, ages 12 to 25 months, were seen in Ainsworth's Strange Situation. The FTT and control groups were equivalent on age of mother (28.0 and 28.6 years, respectively), annual family income ($37,700 and $24,100), and mother's marital status (56% and 52% married). The sample included African-American, Caucasian, and Latino families. In addition, measures of mother-child interaction and mothers' reports of social support and life stress were included. Children with FTT were less likely to show secure and more likely to show anxious, disorganized attachments than normally growing controls: Only 35% of FTTs were secure, whereas 46% showed disorganized attachments. In contrast, 64% of controls were secure and 7% were disorganized. Comparisons between FTTs and controls also revealed differences in maternal sensitivity and stressful social environments. There were no differences in patterns of attachment, level of acute malnutrition, maternal sensitivity, social support, or life stress between organic and nonorganic FTT groups, further discrediting this as a meaningful distinction. The organic and nonorganic groups differed only on a measure of chronicity of malnutrition. These results support the notion that disrupted parent-child relationships and stressful social environments are common in FTT, regardless of the etiology of growth failure. The findings suggest that treatments of FTT must address psychological, as well as medical, problems in these families.     

The impact of adult attachment on partner and self‐attributions and relationship quality

This study tested the relationships between mental the models of attachment, the attributions romantic couples make for their own and their partners' behaviors, and relationship quality. Participants (n = 352) who were currently involved in a romantic relationship completed multiple measures of attachment, attributions, and relationship quality. Results revealed that secure people reported less maladaptive attributions than insecure people. In addition, structural model analyses indicated that attachment model of the self (but not the model of others) had both a direct and an indirect effect, mediated by attributions made for negative partner behavior, on relationship satisfaction. Attributions made for self‐ and partner behaviors overlapped to a great extent, implying an attributional style underlying this unique response pattern. These findings suggest that a positive model of self is a valuable personal resource that enhances adaptive attributions, and hence, leads to high levels of relationship quality.     

Adult attachment styles,early relationships,antenatal attachment,and perceptions of infant temperament: A study of first‐time mothers

We explored the relative contributions of first‐time mothers’romantic attachment styles and early relations with their own mothers to the prediction of infant temperamental difficulty. A mediating role for mother's attachment to the unborn baby was assumed. In a prospective longitudinal study of 115 mothers of healthy babies, a structural model was delineated according to a conception of maternally reported infant temperament as a reflection of basic aspects of the mother's personality and mother‐infant relationships. Mothers’experiences with their own mothers as supportive and nonintrusive differentiated between securely and insecurely attached participants. Security of attachment was found to facilitate antenatal attachment and perceptions of the 4‐month‐old infant as easier. Findings indicate that the effects of the mothers’romantic attachment styles on their perceptions of temperamental difficulty are mediated by their antenatal attachment. Moreover, the pattern of findings obtained suggests a link among mothers’history of relationships, romantic attachment styles, and caregiving characteristics that is congruent with evolutionary theoretical assumptions.     

The Interface Between Attachment and Intersubjectivity: Another Contribution from Karlen Lyons-Ruth

Karlen Lyons-Ruth's latest very important article places the mechanisms of attachment in a new, intersubjective context against a background of evolutionary biology. The present discussion adds a further way to think about Lyons-Ruth's discussion of intersubjectivity, relating it to the work of the Hungarian developmentalists Csibra and Gergely. Their theory makes the intersubjective processes highlighted by Lyons-Ruth central in human evolution and individual development. The human mind is unique in that it learns about the meaning of the external world—especially the social and emotional world—through another subjectivity; that means that the other person must be available to “teach.” Lyons-Ruth's findings are compatible with the prediction, from Csibra and Gergely's theory, that the withdrawal of the caregiver would be crucial to later pathology. It means the absence of the essential source of information both about the self (through contingent mirroring) and about loved others and the rest of the world. Because the study sample size is small, the finding of an absence of interaction between genes and environmental influences cannot be conclusive.     

Links among attachment dimensions, affect, the self, and perceived support for broadly generalized attachment styles and specific bonds

Measures of adult attachment reflect both respondents' broadly generalized styles as well as bonds with specific attachment figures. Using Cronbach, Gleser, Nanda, and Rajaratnam's (1972) Multivariate Generalizability analyses, the authors estimated the extent to which correlations among attachment, affect, the self, and perceived social support occurred for both styles and bonds. In two studies, participants rated attachment, affect, the self, and perceived support when thinking about their mothers, fathers, and romantic partners. In both studies, attachment dimensions reflected specific bonds much more so than generalized styles. When correlations reflected specific bonds, both anxious and avoidant dimensions were strongly linked to high negative affect, low positive affect, and low perceived support. In contrast, evidence for links between attachment and affect was inconclusive when correlations reflected generalized styles. Links between attachment and the self depended on the type of self-construct and whether styles or bonds were analyzed.     

Within-person variation in security of attachment: a self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being

Attachment research has traditionally focused on individual differences in global patterns of attachment to important others. The current research instead focuses primarily on within-person variability in attachments across relational partners. It was predicted that within-person variability would be substantial, even among primary attachment figures of mother, father, romantic partner, and best friend. The prediction was supported in three studies. Furthermore, in line with self-determination theory, multilevel modeling and regression analyses showed that, at the relationship level, individuals' experience of fulfillment of the basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness positively predicted overall attachment security, model of self, and model of other. Relations of both attachment and need satisfaction to well-being were also explored.     

Romantic attachment,dyadic coping,and parental adjustment across the transition to parenthood

This study explored the mediating role of common dyadic coping (common DC) on the longitudinal associations between attachment‐related anxiety and avoidance and parental adjustment to the first year postpartum. A total of 92 Portuguese couples completed self‐report questionnaires of romantic attachment, common DC, parenting stress, and parental confidence. Results showed that more avoidant parents (at mid‐pregnancy) engaged less in common DC (at 6 weeks postpartum), which consequently increased their partner's parenting stress (only in mothers) and decreased their partner's parental confidence (in both parents) at 6–9 months postpartum. Anxious attachment did not predict parents' adjustment directly or indirectly. Interventions aimed at preventing adjustment difficulties to early parenthood in more avoidant parents should focus on enhancing their common DC strategies soon after childbirth.     

The role of romantic attachment and self‐criticism and dependency for the relationship satisfaction of community adults

This article aims to investigate the role of romantic attachment versus the personality dimensions related to self‐definition and relatedness for relationship satisfaction. Self‐report instruments measuring romantic attachment, self‐criticism and dependency, severity of depression, negative life events and relationship satisfaction were administrated to 266 community adults. As expected, results showed that secure romantic attachment was positively and insecure romantic attachment was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction, and this was the case even when controlling for self‐criticism and dependency, severity of depression and negative life events. Implications of these findings for couple therapy are discussed.     

Relationships,attachment, and culture: A tribute to John Bowlby

As a tribute to John Bowlby, some of the work that he stimulated and facilitated is reviewed. In rhesus monkeys, the behavior of individuals is much influenced by social companions. Dyadic relationships and group structure are crucial. A few days' separation between mother and infant can produce long-term effects, but the outcome depends on a large number of factors. The need to maintain a proper balance between a research focus on the individual, the relationship, and the family or group is stressed. John Bowlby's use of comparative data is discussed. This perspective shed light on many aspects of infant and child behavior and was crucial in the development of attachment theory. The dangers of equating what is “natural” with what is “best” are stressed: Cultural desiderata interact with the biological desiderata on which natural selection operated in our environment of evolutionary adaptedness.     

Hidden meaning of an early loss. The common ground of attachment and social character assessments and their clinical applications

All contemporary psychoanalytical theorists are concerned with the common problem of how to account for the preeminent importance of relations. John Bowlby, the founder of attachment theory, suggests that “instinctive” behavioral systems underlie much of the emotional life of man and have developed because they were necessary for survival. The system with which he was almost exclusively concerned was the multitude of behaviors and experiences constituting the child's “attachment” to the mother. This “strikingly strong tie, evident particularly when disrupted”, has systematically been observed by attachment researchers, through the development of a series of instruments that gauge interpersonal communication. These interpersonal communications have on their part been found to “contain traces of developmental history”.

Bowlby's theory is based on clinical accounts of cases of important loss experiences. A transcendental role is given in Bowlby's theory to the experiences of loss. It stresses that the construction of mourning processes can be seen as a manifestation of search and as a general gradual mental reorientation. The paper introduces the methodological perspectives, which are observable derivations of Bowlby's psycho‐ethological ideas. We will argue that becoming acquainted with these attachment‐research tools and with socio‐psychoanalytic assessment can enhance the development of the clinicians' observational skills, their insight and their scientific research practices. A clinical vignette seen through the lenses of the attachment assessment of loss is presented. It points in addition to the socio‐cultural‐ethnical basis that serves as an underlying structure for the development of meaning.     

Revisiting the African origins of attachment research—50 years on from Ainsworth: A descriptive review

Culture plays a significant role in the variations observed in the manifestation, expression, and meaning of attachment behaviors. Africa is home to multiple cultures, with distinct organizations of caregiving relationships underlying the development of attachment. This review aims to consolidate knowledge about African attachment by describing studies of infant attachment conducted in Africa since Mary Ainsworth's Ugandan findings in 1967. Electronic databases were searched with the terms “Africa” (“attachment” or “bond”) and “infant.” Nine studies that assessed infant attachment style with self-report or observation methods were included, but spanned only five countries. The Strange Situation Procedure was most frequently used. Most studies described dyads living in peri-urban or township areas. Multiple socioeconomic factors affecting living conditions were identified, including, unemployment, financial difficulties, limited education, poor housing, single parenthood, lack of partner support, substance abuse, and depression. Overall distributions of attachment classification proportions appear consistent with global attachment-classification patterns. Despite adverse conditions, secure attachment was relatively widespread, and some populations had low rates of avoidant attachment. Relatively high rates of disorganized attachment were found when the category was included. Africa remains an understudied continent regarding infant attachment. The continent's cultural diversity may hold important truths necessary for understanding the complex relationship between infant and attachment figure.     

Fathers' and mothers' attachment representations as predictors of preadolescents' attachment security: A ten‐year follow‐up of Finnish families

The question of how mothers' and fathers' representations of attachment correlate ten years later with children's perceptions of attachment relationships was examined in a longitudinal study on Finnish families (N = 42). The parents completed the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) during the child's first year of life. At 11 years, the children filled out three scales on how secure they perceive the relationship with each parent. Parents' AAI classifications and AAI dimensions based on continuous scales were used as predictors of the preadolescents' attachment security. Regression analyses demonstrated that fathers' but not mothers' State‐of‐Mind and Experience dimensions predicted preadolescents' security of attachment to father. The discussion focuses on the predictive validity of the classical categorical versus the recently proposed continuous approach and the different roles of parents in transmitting security from one generation to another.     

Psychological attachment,no-self and Chan Buddhist mind therapy

The role of Chan Buddhism for mind therapy is distinguished from psychotherapy by the objectives in diminishing or removing the deluded perceived self and the psychological self of attachments and cravings, which are considered as the more basic origins for psychological suffering and problems. The Buddhist concepts of impermanence, no-self and emptiness are discussed to explain the Buddhist explanation for human suffering. A four-stage theory is described to explain the common Buddhist meditation experience toward the realization of no-self. Removing psychological attachment is found to be of explanatory value for many enlightenment episodes of Chan masters. Meditation concentration and reduction of self-attachment will mutually reinforce each other toward a complete therapy of the mind. An innovative approach for psychotherapy in going further to tackle a person's basic life attachments is suggested.     

Romantic partners and body image disturbance: Further evidence for the role of perceived—actual disparities

In this study, female and male college dyads (primarily Caucasian) involved in a “romantic relationship” used schematic figures to rate their conceptions of body size on a variety of rating protocols, including actual self, ideal self, ideal opposite gender, perceived partner's ideal opposite gender, perceived partner's rating of self, and rating of partner's body size. Based on the reflected-appraisal literature and previous body image research on perceived—actual disparities in body size ratings, five discrepancy indices were created and related to dispositional levels of body image disturbance, eating dysfunction, and general psychological function (self-esteem, depression). The results clearly indicated gender differences in the particular predictor associated with all measures of disturbance. For females, the discrepancy between the Self rating and the Perceived Partner's Ideal Other Gender rating accounted for almost all of the variance associated with clinical indices of disturbance. For males, the discrepancy between the Self rating and the Actual Partner's Ideal Other Gender rating was the only important predictor to emerge in regression analyses. The findings are interpreted in light of recent research on actual/perceived differences in body size ratings.     

The self‐esteem roller coaster: Adult attachment moderates the impact of daily feedback

People with different attachment orientations rely on different sources of self‐esteem. This 14‐day diary study examined the impact of different types of feedback on self‐esteem for adults of different attachment orientations. Consistent with theory, higher (vs. lower) anxious participants' daily self‐esteem fluctuated more with daily interpersonal feedback conveying rejection or coming from a romantic partner; they also self‐reported stronger reactions to idiosyncratic negative interpersonal feedback. Higher (vs. lower) avoidant participants showed weaker daily self‐esteem fluctuation with positive interpersonal feedback, and those with a fearful‐avoidant attachment pattern reported stronger reactions to positive agentic feedback. Self‐reported emotional reactions mediated links between attachment dimensions and self‐reported impact of feedback on self‐evaluations. Results highlight the importance of affect‐regulation strategies in influencing regulation of self‐esteem.     

Early exposure to violence,domestic violence,attachment representations,and marital adjustment

The present study investigates the effects of violent experiences in childhood on current domestic violence and marital adjustment, using adult attachment theory as a conceptual framework. A nonclinical sample of 644 Canadian adults in long‐term romantic relationships completed measures of adult romantic attachment, conflict tactics scales, and dyadic adjustment. Structural equation modeling revealed that early experiences of violence affect adults' intimate violence directly and indirectly through anxiety over abandonment and avoidance of intimacy. The actor–partner interdependence model illustrated the importance of early exposure to violence in predicting both partners' attachment representations, intimate violence, and couple adjustment. Findings are discussed with reference to the clinical issues surrounding minor violence against the intimate partner.