Men's friendships,women's friendships and the alleged inferiority of the latter

Over a decade of research utilizing a model and technique for the study of same-sex friendships has revealed some unsought and initially unexpected differences between men and women. Relevant aspects of this research are reviewed. Taken as a whole, the findings indicate overall differences between men and women that were readily interpretable in terms of traditional sex roles and socialization practices. However, when differences were found, they were seldom extremely large or glaringly obvious and thus provide no sound basis for predicting the character of the friendship of any particular pair of men or women. Moreover, when the friendships examined were limited to those that were very strong and of long duration, no appreciable sex differences were found. Special attention is given to the contention that women's friendships are inferior to those of men.     

Intimacy in same-sex friendships

Three studies were conducted to evaluate the significance of the finding that females are more disclosing in their same-sex friendships than are males. No support was found for the suggestion that males feel just as close to their same-sex friends as do females. However, there was support for a developmental contention that during adolescence both sexes expect to become more disclosing in their other-sex friendships in adulthood, and that the spousal relationship should be the most intimate. Further, both sexes, whether in the United States or Hungary, believe females are more disclosing of their feelings and problems than are males. Although males do seem to wish to be more disclosing, they expect to be more open mainly in other-sex friendships. The majority of adults profess little concern about disclosure in same-sex friendships, but women report feeling more at ease in relating to other women than to men.     

Close friendships among senior adults

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the relative contributions of personal, affective, and social exchange characteristics to satisfaction with the best friendship. Senior adults (N = 76) described and evaluated their best friendships in terms of positive and negative affect, equity, reciprocity of social support, and satisfaction. The individual's endorsement of communal and exchange orientations were included as personal characteristics. The study confirms that a communal orientation enhances satisfaction with a best friendship and that conflict and negativity detract from it. Social exchange characteristics were not related to friendship satisfaction. The need to reevaluate the role of social exchange in close relationships is discussed.     

Group counseling to enhance adolescents' close friendships

The purpose of this study was to measure the impact of group counseling on adolescents' intimacy with a close friend. The study population was comprised of 174 residential and day students of seven ninth-grade classes in a residential school in Israel. All participants were socially disadvantaged, with a problematic family background. They were randomly divided into experimental and control conditions: group counseling versus an in-class enrichment program. School personnel in the helping professions conducted all counseling groups after receiving training and supervision. Results of the counseling intervention showed a significant late effect in intimacy growth with a close friend. None of the three covariates (gender, residency, divorce) had a significant impact on results. The results support, to some extent, the dual process model of relationship development.     

Behavior expectations in cross‐sex friendships,same‐sex friendships,and romantic relationships

Abstract In 2 studies, university students from the United States rated the importance of 43 behavior expectations about their cross‐sex friends, same‐sex friends and romantic partners. In Study 1, all 399 participants had a current romantic partner, whereas in Study 2, romantic partner status varied across the 165 participants. Participants always rated their expectations for romantic partners higher than for either type of friend, and expectations for behaviors promoting emotional closeness were always rated higher than expectations about behaviors promoting social companionship or relationship positivity. In Study 2, expectations for cross‐sex friends were rated lower and more similar to same‐sex friends when participants had a current romantic partner than when they did not.     

Co-rumination mediates contagion of internalizing symptoms within youths' friendships

Peer contagion of internalizing symptoms was examined within youths' friendships over 6 months. Children (Grades 3 and 5) and adolescents (Grades 7 and 9) paired in 274 reciprocal same-sex friendship dyads completed measures of depressive and anxiety symptoms, co-rumination, and self-disclosure. Depression contagion was present for all youth, and anxiety contagion was found in the sample of girls and older boys. Although normative self-disclosure did not mediate the contagion effects, co-rumination mediated the depression contagion effect for adolescents and the anxiety contagion effect in the sample of girls and older boys. Implications for interventions with youth at risk for developing internalizing symptoms are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

A balance theory explanation of challenges confronting cross-sex friendships

This study was part of an ongoing investigation into four of the potential challenges confronting women and men in cross-sex fiendships (O’Meara, 1989). Unlike previous research, which explored the perspective of only one member of each cross-sex fnendship, this study examined the perspectives of both individuals in cross-sex fienhhips. The levels of actual and perceived agreement and understanding were investigated through utilization of a variation of Heiderian Balance Theory and Laing’s Interpersonal Perception Method. Seventy three pairs of cross-sex fiends completed a survey examining direct perspectives, metaperspectives, and meta-metaperspectives, on the four challenges. Over 92% of the participants were heterosexual, 68% were Caucasian, 10% were Afican American, 10% were Hispanic, 3% were Asian, 4% were Native American, and 5% indicated “other.” Results indicate that cross-sex fiends generally agree that O’Meara’s four challenges present only minimal problems in their individual relationships, and that balance theory provides a viable explanation of how perceived agreement and understanding concerning challenges are arrived at within cross-sex fnendships. Additionally, results illustrating disagreements and misunderstandings within cross-sex friendships highlight the importance of looking at the perspectives of both individuals within a dyad.     

A theoretical analysis of sex differences in same-sex friendships

An investigation of sex differences in same-sex friendships was conducted in terms of the intersection and social penetration model of relationship development, and Bem's theory of sex role orientation. The results indicated that there were significant sex differences in the nature of the same-sex friendships studied. In the terminology of Levinger's (Toward the Analysis of Close Relationships, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1980, 16, 510–544) intersection model, female same-sex friendships indicated greater involvement. In the terminology of Altman and Taylor's (Social Penetration: The Development of Interpersonal Relationships, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1973) social penetration model, female friendships demonstrated greater depth. Overall, the female friendships were of longer duration than those of the males. The differences in involvement and depth were found within each designated level of friendship (causal, good, and close). However, the difference in involvement was moderated by the sex role orientation of the participants, in that the sex difference was greater between sex-typed individuals than between androgynous individuals. An examination of questionnaire subscale intercorrelations indicated that females tended to seek friends to whom they could relate in many different areas, while males tended to develop different relationships to meet different needs.     

Same- and cross-sex friendships and the psychology of homosociality

The present study investigated the homosocial preferences and the functions, formation, and maintenance characteristics of same- and cross-sex friendships for a sample of 90 young adults, ages 20 to 28 years. Single women and married participants of both sexes evidenced a definite preference for same-sex friendships. The expectations associated with same-sex friendship functioning were found to be similar for both sexes. Cross-sex friendships were reported by both women and men as providing less help and loyalty than same-sex relationships. Otherwise, cross-sex friendship functioning was described by men as closely resembling same-sex friendships, but women reported cross-sex relations as providing less acceptance, less intimacy, and more companionship than same-sex ones. Friendship formation and maintenance for same- and cross-sex friendships were also found to differ significantly. The results are discussed in terms of Lipman-Blumen's [In M. Blaxall & B. Reagan (Eds.), Women and the workplace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976, pp. 15–32] theory of homosociality.This article is based on a paper presented at the American Psychological Association, 88th Annual Convention, Montreal, Canada, September 1980.     

Beyond intimacy: conceptualizing sex differences in same-sex friendships

This study was designed to replicate and extend prior findings that same-sex friendships of women and men are equally important but that women's friendships are more intimate. A group of adolescents and a group of adults were asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire regarding the quality of their close friendships, the degree to which they would support a close friend in times of difficulty, and the degree to which they would celebrate with a friend in times of success. Results demonstrated that both females and males saw and spoke with their close friends and were equally willing to confront and trust their close friends. Females, however, reported more desire to spend time with a close friend in times of difficulty and to celebrate with a close friend who had just experienced a positive event. Results are discussed in terms of the differing functions of women's and men's same-sex friendships and women's greater general interest in and attention to transitions in the lives of other individuals.     

Loneliness,exchange orientation,and reciprocity in friendships

Guided by equity theory, this study among 185 Dutch students explored the effects of exchange orientation and reciprocity in the relationship with the best friend upon loneliness. Reciprocity was in general more common in this relationship than feeling advantaged or deprived. The association between reciprocity and loneliness was as predicted on the basis of equity theory: Those feeling deprived as well as those feeling advantaged in the relationship with the best friend reported much more loneliness than those perceiving reciprocity in terms of giving and receiving help. The association between reciprocity and loneliness was especially pronounced among those high in overbenefitting exchange orientation, but not among those high in underbenefitting exchange orientation. However, more loneliness was found among those high in underbenefitting exchange orientation, independent of the degree of reciprocity in the relationship with the best friend. The effects of lack of reciprocity and exchange orientation upon loneliness remained the same when self-esteem was included as a covariate.