Inequity aversion in human adults: testing behavioural criteria from comparative cognition

Inequity aversion refers to an attempt to reduce a perceived discrepancy between one’s own input and output ratio (i.e. ratio between work invested and rewards obtained) and that of others. It has been proposed that inequity aversion might also play a role in the decision-making process of other animals. One issue, however, is that while studies in comparative cognition define clear behavioural criteria for an inequity aversion effect in animals, studies conducted on humans rely on an implicit definition of the concept involving assumptions for which there is yet no experimental evidence. In particular, the basis of inequity aversion is assumed to be a social comparison process that is further motivated by fairness concerns. Based on the studies on non-human animals, we tested whether inequity aversion in adult humans will satisfy the behavioural criteria for these assumptions. Although humans showed a decrease in working for a lower-value reward when working alone (non-social effect), this effect was enhanced when a partner was present (social effect) suggesting that their inequity aversion might be based on a social comparison process. Additionally, our tests ruled out the possibility that selfish motives underlie the subjects’ decisions, which raises the possibility that fairness concerns might have been the primary motive. Our results thus show that human behaviour satisfies two criteria imposed by the definition of inequity aversion. A similar pattern is shown in other species, suggesting that the same or similar processes might influence economic decision-making in both humans and non-human animals.     

社会距离与分配差距对儿童有利不公平厌恶的影响

选取60名8-10岁儿童,采用迫选式独裁者游戏,考察个体与博弈对象的社会距离以及分配差距对儿童有利不公平厌恶的影响。结果发现：（1）在有利不公平条件下,与博弈对象社会距离越近,儿童对不公平分配提议的拒绝率越高;（2）分配差距越大,儿童对不公平分配提议的拒绝率越高;（3）社会距离和分配差距交互作用显著,在中等分配差距条件下,儿童对不公平分配提议拒绝率的社会距离效应最为明显。结果表明,社会距离和分配差距对儿童有利不公平厌恶有显著影响,在中度分配差距下社会距离具有更加明显的调节作用。     

社会距离与分配差距对儿童有利不公平厌恶的影响

选取60名8-10岁儿童,采用迫选式独裁者游戏,考察个体与博弈对象的社会距离以及分配差距对儿童有利不公平厌恶的影响。结果发现：（1）在有利不公平条件下,与博弈对象社会距离越近,儿童对不公平分配提议的拒绝率越高;（2）分配差距越大,儿童对不公平分配提议的拒绝率越高;（3）社会距离和分配差距交互作用显著,在中等分配差距条件下,儿童对不公平分配提议拒绝率的社会距离效应最为明显。结果表明,社会距离和分配差距对儿童有利不公平厌恶有显著影响,在中度分配差距下社会距离具有更加明显的调节作用。     

行为经济学中的不平等规避

不平等规避是指人们在资源分配中厌恶不平等的分配结果,为了达成平等甚至愿意付出一定代价的现象。这一现象是经济学中常见的行为"异象",属于社会偏好理论的研究范畴。不平等规避的经典模型是FS-ERC模型,后来的研究者从消极情绪、意图和社会奖励等视角对不平等规避的心理机制进行了深入探索。不平等规避会受到多种因素影响,例如人口统计学变量、社会距离、决策时间和实验任务特征等。未来的研究可以从不平等规避的心理机制、神经基础,以及对不平等规避的稳健性进行再验证等方面展开。     

"I had so much it didn't seem fair": Eight-year-olds reject two forms of inequity

Research using economic games has demonstrated that adults are willing to sacrifice rewards in order to prevent inequity both when they receive less than a social partner (disadvantageous inequity) and when they receive more (advantageous inequity). We investigated the development of both forms of inequity aversion in 4- to 8-year-olds using a novel economic game in which children could accept or reject unequal allocations of candy with an unfamiliar peer. The results showed that 4- to 7-year-olds rejected disadvantageous offers, but accepted advantageous offers. By contrast, 8-year-olds rejected both forms of inequity. These results suggest that two distinct mechanisms underlie the development of the two forms of inequity aversion.     

Social comparison mediates chimpanzees’ responses to loss,not frustration

Why do chimpanzees react when their partner gets a better deal than them? Do they note the inequity or do their responses reflect frustration in response to unattainable rewards? To tease apart inequity and contrast, we tested chimpanzees in a series of conditions that created loss through individual contrast, through inequity, or by both. Chimpanzees were tested in four social and two individual conditions in which they received food rewards in return for exchanging tokens with an experimenter. In conditions designed to create individual contrast, after completing an exchange, the chimpanzees were given a relatively less-preferred reward than the one they were previously shown. The chimpanzees’ willingness to accept the less-preferred rewards was independent of previously offered foods in both the social and individual conditions. In conditions that created frustration through inequity, subjects were given a less-preferred reward than the one received by their partner, but not in relation to the reward they were previously offered. In a social context, females were more likely to refuse to participate when they received a less-preferred reward than their partner (disadvantageous inequity), than when they received a more-preferred reward (advantageous inequity). Specifically, the females’ refusals were typified by refusals to exchange tokens rather than refusals to accept food rewards. Males showed no difference in their responses to inequity or individual contrast. These results support previous evidence that some chimpanzees’ responses to inequity are mediated more strongly by what others receive than by frustration effects.     

Children discard a resource to avoid inequity

Elucidating how inequity aversion (a tendency to dislike and correct unequal outcomes) functions as one develops is important to understanding more complex fairness considerations in adulthood. Although previous research has demonstrated that adults and children reduce inequity, it is unclear if people are actually responding negatively to inequity or if people dislike others getting more than them (motivated by social comparison) and like to share maximal resources, especially with those who have few resources (motivated by social welfare preferences). In order to evaluate if children are truly averse to inequity, we had 3- to 8-year-old children distribute resources to 3rd parties and found that 6- to 8-year-old children would rather throw a resource in the trash than distribute unequally, suggesting that concerns with equity can trump concerns with maximal sharing. We also demonstrated that children's reactions were not based on wanting to avoid upsetting the recipients or based on a preference for visual symmetry and that children will even throw away a resource that could have gone to themselves in order to avoid inequity. These results demonstrate the existence of inequity aversion in children, provide a new method for studying inequity aversion specifically, and suggest the need for new models to explain why inequity aversion may have evolved.     

Academic Locus of Control and LOGO Performance among Black and White Zimbabwean Girls and Boys

Abstract

Data from a national survey of African-American workers were used to test predictions from equity theory regarding the “distress” that results from negative inequity (below expected level) and positive inequity (above expected level) in pay and occupational prestige. The results showed differential effects of the two types of inequity on dependent variables of job satisfaction and self-report of job-related skill. Although those faced with opposite forms of inequity fostered different strategies for inequity reduction, in each case, workers chose a strategy that was self-protective.     

Effects of wage inequities on work attitudes and performance

A replication and extension of the Adams and Jacobsen (1964) investigation of inequity theory was carried out using a 3 × 2 experimental design with three levels of compensation and two levels of qualifiedness. This design included an overcompensated condition in which the overpayment was not confounded with unqualifiedness, thereby allowing a comparison of differential predictions from inequity and expectancy theory. Comparisons of over and underpayment conditions were also made to test the differential threshold hypothesis of inequity theory. Attitudinal as well as performance data were collected to investigate the possibility of differing modes of inequity reduction.The major finding in the present study was that variations in manipulated perceptions of qualifiedness produced significant effects upon both quality and quantity measures of work behavior while induced variations in the amount of anticipated compensation only affected quality of work. The qualified conditions produced fewer pieces of higher quality. This finding was discussed from the point of view of inequity theory as well as an alternative “self-esteem” explanation.Differences in work performance across pay levels were nonsignificant with the exception of a work quality measure in which the overpaid qualified group produced significantly more errors than the standard pay-qualified group. Possible interpretations of these findings were discussed and a range of conditions which may affect perceptions of inequity were considered.     

Social Exchange Theory: Dynamics of a System Governing the Dysfunctional Family and Guide to Assessment

Examined is a social psychological model of family discordance. Theories derive in part from exchange theory and from operant principles of behavior. First reviewed are tenets of social exchange theory based in traditional systems analysis (ecosystems). Conceptually presented is how human relations are interdependent on resources of supply and demand. Family patterns are shared by unspoken rules governing givers and takers of resources, forming an imperfect market economy that balances or imbalances family life. Properties of family ecology clearly specify intervening variables contributing to family breakdown. Second, an application of social exchange theory integrates operant principles of reinforcement and punishment as predictors of family disintegration. Punishing and rewarding exchanges are explored in alcoholic families. Operant contingencies significantly magnify the inequity and nonreciprocity of love, affection, and general nurturing between parent and child. Implications are offered for clinical assessment.     

Inequity,burnout and psychological withdrawal among teachers: a dynamic exchange model

This study examined the relations among inequity, psychological wellbeing and organizational commitment among a longitudinal sample of 920 Dutch teachers. Equity theory provided hypotheses on the mutual effects of inequity experienced in interpersonal and organizational exchange relationships on the one hand, and strain and psychological withdrawal on the other. Further, we expected that distincing oneself from an inequitable exchange relationship would lead to a more equitable balance between investments in and benefits gained from the corresponding exchange relationships. Covariance structure modelling supported the distinction among three types of exchange relationships, as well as the distinction between different sets of outcome variables associated with these relationships. Inequity was related to the expected negative work outcomes within but not across time points. Withdrawal from an inequitable relationship seemed to increase, rather than to decrease the inequity of particular exchange relationships.     

Perception and Reactions to Inequity as a Function of Social Comparison Referents and Hierarchical Levels1

Perceptions and reactions to inequity may hinge on referents of comparison and also on employees' rank in the organization. This study examined how three comparison referents—internal same-rank, external same-rank and external whole-organization—and respondents' hierarchical status in the company influence perceptions of inequity. The study also examined the relationship of perceived inequity with affect, job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, and stress. Seventy-five employees randomly selected from the three hierarchical levels of a manufacturing company (managers, supervisors, and workers) were the respondents. Results suggest that when individuals made comparisons with external same-rank and external whole-organization referents they experienced more inequity than when they made internal same-rank comparisons. Managers in comparison to supervisors and workers perceived less inequity related to pay, general rules administration, promotion, company and fringe benefits, advancement opportunities, and social power. Perception of inequity was found to be negatively related to job involvement, job satisfaction, and affect, and positively related to stress. Results implicate the role of social comparison referents in the evaluation of organizational rewards and perceptions of inequity.     

Dishonesty in the Name of Equity

ABSTRACT— Under what conditions do people act dishonestly to help or hurt others? We addressed this question by examining the influence of a previously overlooked factor—the beneficiary or victim of dishonest acts. In two experiments, we randomly paired participants and manipulated their wealth levels through an initial lottery. We then observed how inequity between partners influenced the likelihood of one dishonestly helping or hurting the other, while varying the financial incentives for dishonest behavior. The results show that financial self-interest cannot fully explain people's tendency to dishonestly help or hurt others. Rather, such dishonesty is influenced by emotional reactions to wealth-based inequity, even when the dishonesty bears a personal financial cost. Envy evoked by negative inequity led to hurting behavior, whereas guilt induced by positive inequity motivated helping behavior. Finally, inequity between the partner and third parties triggered dishonest helping through empathy with the partner.     

认知资源对4～6岁儿童不公平厌恶的影响

目的:探究幼儿不公平厌恶是自动化反应还是理性行为。方法:采用最后通牒博弈游戏变式和认知资源消耗任务,考察104名4~6岁儿童的不公平厌恶。结果:(1)4~6岁儿童的不利不公平厌恶随年龄发展增多;有利不公平厌恶出现较晚,表现较少;二者发展不平衡;(2)4~6岁儿童的不公平厌恶是依赖于认知资源的理性行为;(3)4~6岁儿童不利不公平厌恶受认知资源影响更大;认知资源不足导致5岁儿童不公平厌恶行为减少更多。结论:4~6岁儿童的不公平厌恶是依赖于认知资源的理性行为。     

Participation by women in developmental, social, cognitive, and general psychology: A context for interpreting trends in behavior analysis

We examined participation by women in journals devoted to social, developmental, cognitive, and general psychology. Authorship and first authorship by women increased from 1978 to 1997 for most journals. Participation by women on the editorial staff did not keep pace with their increased authorship for social and developmental psychology. Based on these trends, women's participation decreased with increases in the selectivity of the position for social and developmental psychology (a glass ceiling). The development of a glass ceiling suggests that the contributions of men and women are not always treated equally (gender inequity). Because a similar glass ceiling was reported for journals in behavior analysis (McSweeney, Donahoe, & Swindell, 2000; McSweeney & Swindell, 1998), the causes of this inequity appear to be relatively widespread. The failure to find a glass ceiling for general and cognitive psychology suggests that the inequity might be reduced by subtle pressure for diversity in editorial positions and by adopting actions that encourage women to pursue research positions.     

More equal than others: Equity norms as an integration of cognitive heuristics and contextual cues in bargaining games

Behavior in one-shot bargaining games, like the Ultimatum Game (UG), has been interpreted as an expression of social preferences, such as inequity aversion and negative reciprocity; however, the traditional UG design limits the range of possible psychological interpretation of the results. Here, we employed three different designs for ultimatum games, finding support for a more comprehensive theory: behavior is driven by cognitive factors implementing rules such as equal splitting, speaking up for the idea that equity works as a cognitive heuristic, applicable when the environment provides no reason to behave otherwise. Instead subjects deviate from this rule when environment changes, as, for instance, when personal interest is at stake.Results show that behavior varies systematically with contextual cues, balancing the self-interest with the automatic application of the equity heuristic. Thus, the context suggests the rule to be applied in a specific situation.     

Exploring how people respond to conflicts between self‐interest and fairness: Influence of threats to the self on affective reactions to advantageous inequity

Two studies examined how people deal with conflicts between their self‐interest concerns and their striving for fairness. Specifically, the affective reactions to outcome arrangements in which people receive better outcomes than comparable other persons, were studied. These arrangements of advantageous inequity constitute situations in which fairness and self‐interest concerns are in conflict. Building on the social psychology of the self, it was predicted, and found, in both field and lab experiments that when people experience a self‐threat, they react more positively to arrangements of advantageous inequity than when not experiencing this threat. This supports the view that people's need for positive information about their selves is an important factor in the underlying psychological processes of the way that people deal with conflicts between their fairness and self‐interest concerns.     

Mediation Analysis in Social Psychology: Current Practices and New Recommendations

A key aim of social psychology is to understand the psychological processes through which independent variables affect dependent variables in the social domain. This objective has given rise to statistical methods for mediation analysis. In mediation analysis, the significance of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables has been integral in theory testing, being used as a basis to determine (1) whether to proceed with analyses of mediation and (2) whether one or several proposed mediator(s) fully or partially accounts for an effect. Synthesizing past research and offering new arguments, we suggest that the collective evidence raises considerable concern that the focus on the significance between the independent and dependent variables, both before and after mediation tests, is unjustified and can impair theory development and testing. To expand theory involving social psychological processes, we argue that attention in mediation analysis should be shifted towards assessing the magnitude and significance of indirect effects.     

Social Comparisons and Absenteeism: A Structural Modeling Approach1

In this study a social comparison model is constructed that predicts objectively recorded absence frequency among male Dutch blue-collar workers from a metal factory in the Netherlands. By employing LISREL, the model is developed (tested and revised) in Plant North (N = 254), and successfully cross-validated in Plant South (N= 199). The study demonstrates the impact of two social comparison processes upon absenteeism. Absenteeism is the result of: (a) the perception that one is less well-off than one's colleagues on several job aspects, and (b) the adjustment of one's personal absence norm to that of the work group. In addition, our study reveals that, rather than being absent or having tolerant absence norms, employees may develop feelings of resentment in response to perceived inequity and a tolerant group absence norm. It is concluded that social comparison theory enhances our understanding of absenteeism.     

The effects of social ties on coordination: conceptual foundations for an empirical analysis

This paper investigates the influence that social ties can have on behavior. After defining the concept of social ties that we consider, we introduce an original model of social ties. The impact of such ties on social preferences is studied in a coordination game with outside option. We provide a detailed game theoretical analysis of this game while considering various types of players, i.e., self-interest maximizing, inequity averse, and fair agents. In addition to these approaches that require strategic reasoning in order to reach some equilibrium, we also present an alternative hypothesis that relies on the concept of team reasoning. After having discussed the differences between the latter and our model of social ties, we show how an experiment can be designed so as to discriminate among the models presented in the paper.