What Do We Know About Gay and Lesbian Couples?

Abstract— Research on gay and lesbian couples is highlighted with regard to household labor, conflict, satisfaction, perceived social support, stability, and the variables that predict relationship quality. Relative to partners from married heterosexual couples, partners from gay and lesbian couples tend to assign household labor more fairly, resolve conflict more constructively, experience similar levels of satisfaction, and perceive less support from family members but more support from friends. The limited data available indicate that gay and lesbian couples may be less stable than married heterosexual couples. The factors that predict relationship quality tend to be the same for gay, lesbian, and heterosexual married couples. Overall, research paints a positive picture of gay and lesbian couples and indicates that they tend to be more similar to than different from heterosexual couples.     

Profiles of Interdependence: The Retirement Planning of Married, Cohabiting, and Lesbian Couples

As the traditional nuclear family gives way to diverse couple types, questions regarding planning and satisfaction within relationships can be applied to partnerships outside of traditional marriages. The levels of interdependence in retirement planning and timing were investigated across three couple types: married heterosexual couples, cohabiting heterosexual couples, and lesbian couples. Analyses suggested that although all couples were interdependent in their retirement plans, this may be particularly the case for lesbian couples’ financial planning. In addition, relationship satisfaction was significantly associated with retirement lifestyle planning, but more so for lesbian couples than for heterosexual couples. The results are discussed in terms of gender, couple dynamics, and the social structures inherent in the three different couple types.     

Division of Labor Among Lesbian and Heterosexual Parenting Couples: Correlates of Specialized Versus Shared Patterns

One of the central tasks that couples face in coparenting is the division of labor. In this study, we explored division of family labor among lesbian and heterosexual couples who were parenting 4 to 6 year-old children. Sixty-six families, half headed by lesbian couples and half headed by heterosexual couples, participated in the study. Measures of parental attitudes, resources, demographics, and division of labor were collected. As expected, lesbian couples were more likely to divide paid and unpaid labor evenly, whereas heterosexual couples were more likely to show specialized patterns, with husbands investing more time in paid employment and wives devoting more time to unpaid family work. Structural variables (e.g., husband's hours in paid employment) were the best predictors of division of labor among heterosexual couples. Among lesbian couples, however, ideological variables (e.g., ideas about ideal divisions of labor) were the better predictors. Discrepancies in occupational prestige were greater among heterosexual than among lesbian couples. Discussion centers on the ways in which gender and sexual orientation may relate to couples' decisions about division of labor.     

IS SEXUAL ORIENTATION A MATTER OF CHOICE?

Ninety women in lesbian and heterosexual couples were compared on relationship values, views of same-gender and cross-gender intimate relationships, and perceived choice of sexual orientation. Both groups reported similar values, levels of self-esteem, and capacity for intimacy. The majority in both groups described their relationships with women as more emotionally and intellectually intimate than those with men. A majority of women in lesbian couples (58%) and a third of women in heterosexual couples reported choosing the orientation of their current sexual relationship. Women with male partners did not perceive major differences between homosexual and heterosexual relationships, citing sexual attraction as the primary reason they chose a male partner. In contrast, many women with female partners characterized lesbian relationships as more intimate and equal, and less gender-role stereotyped, frequently citing these characteristics, along with sexual attraction, as reasons for their relationship preference.     

Relationships between Gender Role Attitudes, Role Division, and Perception of Equity among Heterosexual, Gay and Lesbian Couples

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationships between gender role attitudes, household tasks, and the perception of equity among heterosexual, gay and lesbian couples. One hundred and twenty-four participants (54 heterosexuals, 30 gay men and 40 lesbians) were tested. It was found that same-sex couples had more liberal attitudes toward gender roles than did heterosexual couples. In addition, significant differences were found between the spouses in their responses regarding role division in housekeeping in each group. The responses of heterosexual spouses correlate more closely with each other regarding the role of each of the spouses than was the case for same-sex couples. However, the role division among lesbian couples was more egalitarian than that of heterosexual couples. In addition, heterosexual women consider their married life less equitable than heterosexual men do. Similarly, one of the gay spouses considers the relationship less equitable than the other spouse does. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance to theories of social perception and cultural backgrounds.     

Facial resemblances between heterosexual, gay, and lesbian couples

Researchers have noted a physical resemblance (homophily) between human sex partners. To date, these studies and their related interpretations have been based on heterosexual couples. The present study compared physical resemblances between gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples, using 40 photographs of each from national newspapers, which were rated by 34 men and 56 women (M age = 53 yr., SD = 12.1). Half the photographs were of actual couples and half were randomly mixed within each group. Actual couples were rated as significantly more similar in appearance than random pairings of people. Ratings of similarity were significantly higher (indicating greater perceived homophily) for gay couples than heterosexual couples, while there was no statistically significant difference in similarity ratings between lesbian couples versus gay and heterosexual couples. The results were interpreted in terms of evolutionary and parental imprinting hypotheses.     

Gender-Typed Play Behavior in Early Childhood: Adopted Children with Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parents

This study examined whether the gender-typed play of young children varies as a function of family structure. Using a sample of 126 couples (44 lesbian couples, 34 gay male couples, and 48 heterosexual couples) located throughout the United States, with an adopted child between the age of 2 and 4?years old (mean?=?2.5?years), we examined parent reports of children’s gender-typed play behavior utilizing the Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI; Golombok and Rust 1993). Findings revealed that the perceived play behaviors of boys and girls in same-gender parent families were more similar (i.e., less gender-stereotyped) than the perceived play behavior of boys and girls in heterosexual-parent families (which were more divergent; that is, gender-stereotyped). Sons of lesbian mothers were less masculine in their play behavior than sons of gay fathers and sons of heterosexual parents. Our findings have implications for researchers who study gender development in children and adolescents.     

THE RELATIONSHIPS OF COHABITING LESBIAN AND HETEROSEXUAL COUPLES: A COMPARISON

The relationships of cohabiting lesbian couples and cohabiting heterosexual couples were compared on three dimensions—Durability, interdependence, and Equality. The lesbian relationships tended to be somewhat less durable and interdependent but more equal. Reasons for these differences are discussed.     

Family and couples therapy with gay and lesbian clients: acknowledging the forgotten minority

Family and couples therapy in the main concentrates on heterosexual clients, and has thus been described as limited in its outlook, or discriminatory. It is argued that family and couples therapy is at present not offered to gay and lesbian clients because of an absence of appropriate referrals, the inability of therapists to recognize the sexual orientation of their clients, a belief that skills held by therapists are not appropriate for this client group, or because of the homophobia of the therapist. It is suggested that family and couples therapy should be more readily available for gay and lesbian clients, and a number of different issues which these families might face are discussed. This includes problems associated with the gay adolescent and the gay or lesbian parent, as well as the gay or lesbian couple. It is concluded that established forms of intervention are effective with gay clients, provided that the specific needs and problems of the gay and lesbian community are addressed by the therapist.     

Induced disgust affects implicit and explicit responses toward gay men and lesbians

In the current study, disgust was induced using a carefully controlled odor manipulation to observe its effect on participants' implicit and explicit responses to homosexuals. Participants were presented with a vial containing an odor that was described as “body odor” (n = 47) that induced a high level of disgust, or “parmesan cheese” (n = 43) that induced a moderate level of disgust, or an odor‐free vial (n = 53). Subsequently, participants viewed images of homosexual and heterosexual couples, and their viewing times and ratings of the images' pleasantness were recorded. Additionally, they completed a “feelings thermometer” task, the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men scale that assessed feelings toward homosexuals, and the Three‐Domain Disgust Scale to measure sensitivity along three dimensions of disgust (pathogen, moral, and sexual). Results indicated that those in the body odor condition viewed images of gay (but not lesbian) couples for less time relative to images of heterosexual couples compared with participants in the other two conditions. With respect to explicit ratings, participants in the body odor condition reported colder feelings for gay relative to heterosexual men on the feelings thermometer compared with those in the no‐odor control condition. For pleasantness ratings, the odor manipulation served as a moderator, such that for those in the body odor condition only, higher sensitivity to sexual disgust predicted lower ratings for images of lesbian couples relative to straight couples. Thus, although induction of disgust biases implicit and explicit responses to gay couples, the degree to which this occurs for explicit ratings of lesbian couples depends on levels of sexual disgust. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Affective responses to non-sexual imagery depicting gay men and lesbian women

ABSTRACT

When examining negative attitudes and behaviors directed toward gay men and lesbian women (i.e., homonegativity), researchers tend to use measures that require participants to respond to belief statements. This methodology is problematic for two reasons: 1) it focuses on the social categories “gay men” and “lesbian women” and ignores the practices of relational intimacy engaged in by gay and lesbian persons (practices that, arguably, are at the crux of homonegativity); and 2) it overlooks the affective responses that sexual minorities evoke in heterosexual people. These issues were tackled in the current study. Specifically, heterosexual participants (N = 241) were asked to report their affective state using six basic emotions while viewing photos depicting male-male, female-female, and heterosexual couples. Findings demonstrated that participants, regardless of gender, reacted most negatively to images of female-female couples engaging in everyday intimacies. Theoretical explanations for these findings are explored.     

Beyond Similarities: Cross-Gender and Cross-Orientation Best Friendship in a Sample of Sexual Minority and Heterosexual Young Adults

The research investigates differences between heterosexual (n?=?714) and lesbian and gay men (n?=?386) young adults regarding best friendship patterns, well-being, and social anxiety. Based on data from a paper-pencil survey of 1,100 Italian young adults aged 18 to 26, this study underlines the importance of the best friend in young adults’ psychological adjustment, highlighting patterns of friendship in heterosexual and lesbian and gay men young adults. Overall, the majority of participants declared that they had best friends; in the total sample, significant differences were found between women and men, and between lesbian/gay men participants and heterosexual young adults. Lesbian and gay men participants reported more cross-gender best friendships than heterosexual participants did, as well as more cross-orientation best friendships. Gender differences were found only with regards to cross-gender friendships: gay men reported more cross-gender friendships than lesbians did, while heterosexual females reported a higher percentage of cross-gender best friendship than heterosexual males did. MANOVA analysis, only in the gay and lesbian sample, showed the effect of gender, cross-gender, and cross-orientation on well-being and social anxiety. For the well-being dimension, gay men participants with female best friends reported higher scores. In terms of social anxiety, lesbian and gay young adults with cross-gender and cross-orientation best friends reported lower levels of social anxiety.     

Sexual Debut Ages in Heterosexual,Lesbian, Gay,and Bisexual Young Adults in Norway

This study estimates sexual debut ages in young heterosexual, lesbian, gay, and bisexual men and women in Norway. A questionnaire survey was completed online by 27.2 % of a representative national web sample of 2090 persons aged 18–29 years. Three self-selected samples of 924 respondents completed an extended version of the survey online. Lesbian and bisexual women reported earlier experience of orgasm through masturbation than heterosexual women (median 13.1 vs. 15.2 years), and heterosexual men (median 13.5) reported earlier debut than heterosexual women. There was a statistically significant difference between heterosexual and lesbian and bisexual women’s age at the first experience of receptive vaginal sex (median 16.8 vs. 15.4 years). As regards experience of insertive vaginal sex, a significantly higher percentage of heterosexual men than women, and of heterosexual and lesbian and bisexual women, reported experience. It was more common among lesbian and bisexual women than heterosexual women to have had oral sex with another woman, but in neither group did the cumulative percent reach 50 % by the age of 29 years and the median could not be estimated. Gay and bisexual men reported earlier receptive anal sex debut than heterosexual men. With regard to insertive anal sex, gay and bisexual men accumulated experience earlier than heterosexual men, and lesbian and bisexual women acquired this experience earlier than heterosexual women. Compared to heterosexuals, LGB persons of both genders engage in more varied sexual activities. Lesbian and gay persons have same-sex experiences at an earlier age than bisexuals.     

Heterosexual, Lesbian, and Gay Preadoptive Parents’ Preferences About Child Gender

Little research has explored the child gender preferences of preadoptive parents. This study utilized a mixed-methods approach to explore child gender preferences (and individuals’ reasons for such preferences) in a geographically diverse, US sample of 93 heterosexual, 61 lesbian, and 48 gay male preadoptive couples. Heterosexual men were the least likely to demonstrate a gender preference and gay men were the most likely. Individuals in heterosexual relationships were more likely to prefer girls than individuals in same-gender relationships. In explaining their preferences, sexual minorities often emphasized gender socialization considerations (e.g., their perceived inability to socialize a child of the opposite gender) and concerns about heterosexism (e.g., some gay men preferred girls because they felt a boy would encounter more harassment).     

An Examination of Established Antecedents of Power in Purchase Decision Making: Married and Nontraditional Couples

This research examined the extent that resource theory, sex-role orientation, least interested partner hypothesis, and involvement apply to cohabiting heterosexual, gay, and lesbian couples. Findings revealed that (a) resources significantly affected only married partners' relative influence and strategy usage; (b) sex-role orientation significantly affected relative influence for married partners and strategy selection for partners in both types of heterosexual couples; (c) least interest significantly affected relative influence for partners in both types of heterosexual couples and influence strategy selection for cohabi-tors; and (d) involvement significantly affected relative influence and strategy usage for all couple types. Overall, the effect of the antecedents on relative influence and strategy usage depends on the extent that partners within any couple type are similar on various antecedents.     

A Test of Positive Illusions Versus Shared Reality Models of Relationship Satisfaction Among Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Couples

According to the positive illusions model ( Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 1996a ), people in romantic relationships are more satisfied when they view their partners more favorably than the partners see themselves. By contrast, shared reality theory ( Hardin & Conley, 2001 ) emphasizes the benefits of perceiving a partner as the partner sees himself or herself. We analyzed archived data from the American Couples Study ( Blumstein & Schwartz, 1983 ) to test the applicability of the positive illusions model to gay and lesbian relationships. Structural equation models demonstrated that the positive illusions model effectively explains relationships among lesbian, gay, heterosexual cohabitating, and married couples.     

Cohesion and adaptability among individuals under treatment for infertility

The objective of this study was to evaluate cohesion and adaptability as relationship patterns of individuals in the presence or absence of infertility. Infertile subjects (20 men and 26 women, age 29.9 yr., SD = 3.8), and 100 fertile individuals (52 men and 48 women, age 29.5 yr., SD = 3.6) were included in this cross-sectional study conducted in Brazil. Subjects were married for the first time and had no children. The pattern of relationship (cohesion and adaptability) was assessed on the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES III). Subjects were also interviewed and the interviews tape-recorded and analyzed by independent and blinded senior psychiatrists. The concepts of cohesion and adaptability did not differentiate infertile couples from fertile ones. Further, the recorded interviews also resulted in heterogeneous. nonconcordant judgments. These results lead to two conclusions: that awareness of infertility is not present in the population studied or that it is present but the magnitude of its effect is quite small and that FACES III and the interview focus on adaptability and cohesion are not sensitive enough to measure the difficulties in these couples' relationships. This leads us to reflect on the type of psychiatric support available to infertile couples.     

Adjustment to relationship dissolution in gay,lesbian, and heterosexual partners

Twenty-six gay, 24 lesbian, and 49 heterosexual (19 male and 30 female) individuals who were separated from their relationship partner for about 6 months provided reasons why their relationship ended and rated their current separation distress. Relative to partners in heterosexual couples, those in gay or lesbian couples did not differ in reasons for the separation or in level of separation distress. Aspects of relationship quality assessed shortly before the separation occurred did not predict later separation distress. However, individuals who indicated that problems with intimacy were the cause of the separation were unlikely to be distressed by the separation, whereas individuals who indicated that problems with communication were the cause of the separation were likely to be distressed by the separation. Separation distress was positively related to the severity of neurotic symptoms reported when the relationship was intact and was negatively related to the extent to which the separation was expected. It is concluded that separation distress is more strongly related to personal strategies for coping with stress than to relationship-related events leading to separation.     

Purchasing decisions in non‐traditional households: the case of lesbian couples

• Extant research on family purchase behavior has focused almost exclusively on heterosexual couples. This exploratory study of non‐traditional households shows that lesbian couples are strongly egalitarian in decision behavior for a wide range of products and services. Perceptions about relative influence of each partner in these dyads are increasingly congruent as the decision process progresses. Findings demonstrate the inapplicability of two concepts long associated with family research, that is, power and relative resource theory, in lesbian couples. Instead, gender dynamics and equity play dominant roles in these relationships.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.