An atypical anxious‐impulsive pattern of social anxiety disorder in an adult clinical population

An atypical subgroup of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) with impulsive rather than inhibited traits has recently been reported. The current study examined whether such an atypical subgroup could be identified in a clinical population of 84 adults with SAD. The temperament dimensions harm avoidance and novelty seeking of the Temperament and Character Inventory, and the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale were used in cluster analyses. The identified clusters were compared on depressive symptoms, the character dimension self‐directedness, and treatment outcome. Among the six identified clusters, 24% of the sample had atypical characteristics, demonstrating mainly generalized SAD in combination with coexisting traits of inhibition and impulsivity. As additional signs of severity, this group showed low self‐directedness and high levels of depressive symptoms. We also identified a typically inhibited subgroup comprising generalized SAD with high levels of harm avoidance and low levels of novelty seeking, with a similar clinical severity as the atypical subgroup. Thus, higher levels of harm avoidance and social anxiety in combination with higher or lower levels of novelty seeking and low self‐directedness seem to contribute to a more severe clinical picture. Post hoc examination of the treatment outcome in these subgroups showed that only 20 to 30% achieved clinically significant change.     

The association between low socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms depends on temperament and personality traits

Socioeconomic status and personality traits are known to be associated with depression risk. We examined whether temperament and personality traits modified the association between socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms. The participants were 2678 individuals from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study, aged 18-49 during the three study waves in 1997, 2001, and 2007 included in the present study. Temperament was assessed with the Temperament and Character Inventory, personality with the Five Factor Model, and depressive symptoms with a modified version of Beck’s Depression Inventory. Education, occupational status, and income level were used as indicators of socioeconomic status. Results of multilevel linear regression analysis indicated that low occupational status and income were associated with high depressive symptoms particularly in individuals with high neuroticism or harm avoidance, and with low extraversion or reward dependence. High persistence also strengthened the negative association between income and depressive symptoms, but this interaction effect was not observed with conscientiousness. The mental health risks of low socioeconomic status may therefore be most potent among individuals who are sensitive to negative and threatening stimuli.     

The genetic structure of Cloninger's seven-factor model of temperament and character in a Japanese sample

Theoretical assumptions regarding the genetic and environmental structure of personality proposed in Cloninger's seven-factor model of temperament and character were verified in a Japanese sample by using the twin method. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) was administered to 296 twin pairs ranging in age from 14 to 28 years old. Among four temperament dimensions (novelty seeking [NS], harm avoidance [HA], reward dependence [RD], and persistence [PS]), HA and PS showed significant additive genetic contributions and no shared environmental effect, supporting the original theoretical assumption. NS and RD could be explained by either genetic or shared environmental factors with nonshared environment. All three character dimensions (cooperativeness [CO], self-directedness [SD], and self-transcendence [ST]) could be explained exclusively by additive contributions and no shared environmental effect. Multivariate genetic analysis indicated that there were no significant associations between NS, HA, and RD, as the theory predicts, and the genetic components of PS, SD, and CO were derived from those of the temperament dimensions. The fourth genetic component, which had a substantial load specifically on ST and overlapped with PS, was identified. Although most of the nonshared environmental effects were trait-specific, the phenotypic correlation between NS and HA could be explained by nonshared environmental overlap.     

International comparison of Cloninger’s temperament dimensions

Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) and Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) have been developed to measure the following temperament dimensions: novelty seeking (NS), harm avoidance (HA), reward dependence (RD) and persistence (P). We used our previous Finnish normative study of the TPQ and TCI (Miettunen et al., 2004) to estimate correction coefficients to convert TPQ scales to comparable TCI scales. Our aim was to compare these corrected temperament dimension scores across 20 countries adjusting for study sample differences in age and gender. In all, some variations were found in these temperament scores between countries. Differences were especially apparent between the Asian and the Western countries. By far the lowest mean score of the RD was in Japan (11.2 vs. 15.4 for other countries; effect size Cohen’s d = −5.74; z-test p < 0.001) and the highest mean score in P was in USA (5.5 vs. 4.4; d = 4.24, p = 0.001). Some of the findings could be explained by sample differences (e.g. age and education); while some may reflect real differences in the ways which personality is related to cultural factors, such as individualism/collectivism. These differences should be considered when interpreting studies with data on TPQ/TCI from different countries.     

Psychometric properties of the temperament and character inventory-revised (TCI-R) in a Belgian sample

The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI; Cloninger, Przybeck, Svrakic, & Wetzel, 1994) is a self-questionnaire developed to assess the 7 dimensions of personality described by Cloninger et al. (1994) with a total of 29 subscales. In 1999, a revised version was proposed by Cloninger (TCI-R). In this study, we present psychometric properties of the TCI-R from 958 French-speaking participants of Belgium. Women exhibited higher scores for harm avoidance, reward dependence, and cooperativeness dimensions. The proposed factorial structure of 4 temperament dimensions and 3 character dimensions was confirmed. The TCI-R inventory had good test-retest reliabilities as well as good alpha coefficients. The addition of 3 new subscales to the original scale for Persistence has produced a very reliable dimension in the TCI-R.     

Associations of temperament and personality traits with frequency of physical activity in adulthood

Temperament and physical activity (PA) have been examined in children and adolescents, but little is known about these associations in adulthood. Personality traits, however, are known to contribute to PA in adults. This study, which examined both temperament and personality characteristics at age 42 in relation to frequency of PA at age 50 (JYLS, n = 214–261), also found associations with temperament traits. Positive associations were found between Orienting sensitivity and overall PA and between Extraversion and vigorous PA among women and between low Negative affectivity and overall and vigorous PA among men. Furthermore, Orienting sensitivity and Agreeableness were associated with vigorous PA among men. Temperament and personality characteristics also showed gender-specific associations with rambling in nature and watching sports.     

Course of Antisocial Behavior during Emerging Adulthood: Developmental Differences in Personality

Despite similar normative changes in antisocial behavior (AB) and traits of disinhibition and negative emotionality during "emerging adulthood," few studies have tested if there are developmental differences in personality over this period for distinct courses of AB. In a college cohort assessed at ages 18 and 25, we examined if mean-level changes on traits from the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire varied by course of AB. Compared to persisters, those who desisted in AB from 18 to 25 exhibited a larger decrease on novelty seeking and larger increase on reward dependence. A significant mean-level decline was observed for harm avoidance, but was unrelated to AB course. Findings support theories of the co-development of personality and AB during emerging adulthood.     

Role of the serotonin transporter gene in temperament and character

The biosocial model postulates that personality is comprised of two broad domains: temperament, which is largely due to inherited variations in specific monoamine neurotransmitter systems; and character, which arises from socioculturally learned differences in values, goals, and self-concepts and is the strongest predictor of personality disorders. The model also proposes that serotonin modulates the temperament trait of harm avoidance. We analyzed the association of temperament and character traits with the 5-HTTLPR, an inherited variation that modulates serotonin transporter gene expression, in 634 volunteer subjects. Contrary to theory, the 5-HTTLPR was most strongly associated with the character traits of cooperativeness and self-directedness. Associations with the temperament traits of reward dependence and harm avoidance were weaker and could be attributable largely to cross-correlations with the character traits and demographic variables. Psychometric analysis indicated that the serotonin transporter influences two broad areas of personality, negative affect and social disaffiliation, that are consistent across inventories but are more concisely described by the 5-factor model of personality than by the biosocial model. These results suggest that there is no fundamental mechanistic distinction between character and temperament in regard to the serotonin transporter gene, and that a single neurotransmitter can influence multiple personality traits.     

Vital exhaustion,temperament, and the circumplex model of affect during laboratory-induced stress

The present study examined the relationship between vital exhaustion, Cloninger's temperament dimensions, and state affects during experimentally induced stress among participants aged 22–37 years. Larsen and Diener's circumplex model of affect was used to structure the self-reported affects. Temperament was measured by the Temperament and Character Inventory. Feelings of exhaustion were assessed by the Maastricht Questionnaire. Stressors used were an aversive startle task, an appetitive mental arithmetic task, and an aversive choice-deadline reaction time task. The results showed that the level of vital exhaustion among healthy persons is related to unpleasant state affects other than state fatigue. Temperament also modified the relationship between vital exhaustion and affects. In addition, vital exhaustion was related to a tendency to behavioural inhibition (harm avoidance). Our findings suggest that temperament is related to feelings of exhaustion and is likely to predispose to negative affectivity when accompanied by exhaustion.     

气质的遗传因素:基因多态性研究

气质是婴儿出生以后最早表现出来的一种人格特征,而人格特征的形成具有一定的生物学基础。气质作为人格特征的组成单元,与人格特征享有共同的生物过程。因此,与成年人人格特征相关的基因也有可能影响儿童气质。本文在成年人的人格特征研究的基础上,针对早期儿童发展的特点,讨论了可能影响早期儿童气质的候选基因。研究成人的人格特征与基因的相关性不能排除环境因素的影响,本文强调了对早期儿童气质与基因多态性之间的关系进行直接研究的重要性。     

Personality disorders and personality dimensions in anorexia nervosa

Information on the relationship between anorexia nervosa (AN) and personality disorders (PDs) and dimensions of temperament and character (measured by the Temperament and Character Inventory [TCI; Cloninger, Przybeck Svrakic, & Wetzel, 1994]) is limited. This study examines the predictive validity of the TCI for PD diagnoses assessed by the International Personality Disorder Examination-ICD-10 (IPDE-ICD-10; Loranger, Janca, & Sartorius, 1997) interviews of 46 women with DSM-IV-defined AN. Patients with a PD reported higher levels of harm-avoidance and lower levels of self-directedness than those without a PD. Scores on the TCI were predictive of the number of PD features present, particularly for those PDs in the anankastic, anxious, and dependent groups accounting for 40% to 51% of the variance. Cluster analysis based on scores on the TCI identified a subgroup of patients characterized by low levels of novelty seeking, self-directedness, and cooperativeness and high levels of harm avoidance. This cluster included the majority of those with avoidant, anxious, or dependent PDs. Assessment of particular personality dimensions was able to predict PDs in an anorexic sample. Since normal personality dimensions have greater validity than the categorical PDs, a consideration of normal temperament and character may assist in clinical decisionmaking and considerations concerning treatment.     

Genetic and environmental determinants of temperament: a comparative study based on Polish and German samples

This study of 1555 adult mono‐ and dizygotic twins reared together estimates the heritability of temperament traits in a Polish and a German sample. We test whether the etiology of temperament traits differs between the two cultures and between different temperament traits. We assessed temperament traits with the Formal Characteristics of Behaviour–Temperament Inventory (FCB‐TI), the Pavlovian Temperament Survey (PTS), the Revised Dimensions of Temperament Survey (DOTS‐R), and the Emotionality–Activity–Sociability Temperament Survey (EAS‐TS). Taking error of measurement into account, genetic sources of variance explained about 50% of the variance of temperament traits. We found neither reliable cultural differences nor robust differences in the etiology of the traits. However, the four questionnaires differed systematically with respect to the proportion of genetic and environmental influences on their scales. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Personality traits and endocrine response as possible asymmetry factors of agonistic outcome in karate athletes

Individual variations of plasma levels of hormones testosterone (T) and cortisol (C), before (pre) and after (post) Kumite (real fight) and Kata (ritualized fight) were measured in male karate athletes and analyzed in relation with the agonistic outcome (i.e. winning or losing the fight) and personality trait measures. T and C increased only during Kumite contest and pre‐ and post‐competition C levels were higher in losers than winners. Losers showed higher levels of harm avoidance and anxiety as well as lower level of novelty seeking than winners. Importantly, novelty seeking negatively correlates with pre C and the higher the level of risk assessment, emotionality and insecurity indexes the higher the pre C level. In conclusion, personality traits might be an important factor asymmetry between athletes influencing both the probability of winning or losing an agonistic interaction and the different anticipatory endocrine response to the incipient fight. Aggr. Behav. 35:324–333, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Emotion regulation mediates the effects of temperament traits and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms on affect in motor vehicle accident survivors

ObjectivesThe aim of the present study was to investigate the associations among temperament traits postulated by the Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT), posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (PTSD symptoms), emotion regulation strategies, and affect in the 280 motor vehicle survivors (MVA).MethodsTemperament was measured with the Formal Characteristics of Behaviour–Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI), the level of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms was assessed by the PTSD Clinical Inventory (PTSD-C), emotion regulation was tested with the Polish adaptation of the Inventory of Cognitive Affect Regulation Strategies (ICARUS), and affect was evaluated by the Polish version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS).ResultsGreater emotional reactivity was associated with grater negative affect (also by maladaptive regulation) and lower positive affect whereas greater activity was linked to grater positive affect (also via adaptive regulation). Furthermore, greater PTSD symptoms were related to greater negative affect (also through maladaptive regulation) and lower positive affect. However, PTSD symptoms were not linked to adaptive regulation strategies.ConclusionThe findings significantly extends our current knowledge on the associations among temperament traits, PTSD symptoms, emotion regulation strategies, and affect in the motor vehicle survivors.     

A study of temperament and personality in anorexia and bulimia nervosa

Although temperament and personality traits could influence the development and course of eating disorders, only a few studies examined the similarities and differences in personality between anorexia and bulimia nervosa. We compared 72 patients with DSM-IV eating disorders and 30 healthy controls. Dimensions of personality and personality disorders were evaluated with the Eysenck's EPQ, Cloninger's TCI, and the SCID-II questionnaires. The rates of impulsivity and clinical features were evaluated using specific rating scales. A comorbid personality disorder was found in 61.8% of patients with eating disorder. Avoidant personality disorder appeared was relatively common in anorexia nervosa restricting type; borderline personality disorder was most frequent in bulimia nervosa and the binge eating-purging type of anorexia nervosa. From a dimensional perspective, anorexic patients presented high scores in the dimension of persistence. Higher harm avoidance and impulsivity was found in bulimic patients. The overall eating disorders group presented high scores in neuroticism and low scores in self-directedness. Eating disorder patients have heterogeneous features of temperament and personality traits. Cluster C personality disorders seem more common in anorexia nervosa restricting type and impulsive personality features are associated with bulimic symptoms. Impulsivity seems to be a key aspect of temperament of bulimic patients, whereas anorexic symptoms are linked to persistent temperament traits.     

Soluble interleukin 2 receptor levels, temperament and character in formerly depressed suicide attempters compared with normal controls

An imbalance of the immune system and mixed personality profiles in suicide attempters have been reported. As suicidal behavior is common in patients with psychiatric disorders within the spectrum of depressive features, in this study we measured soluble interleukin-2 receptor concentrations in plasma (sIL-2R) and investigated temperament and character profile and their potential correlation in formerly depressed patients with a history of suicide attempt. We studied sIL-2R levels in plasma and personality characteristics (using Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory [TCI]) of formerly depressed patients who had attempted suicide a mean of 3 years previously (n = 25), and age and gender matched normal controls (n = 25). There was no significant difference in sIL-2R levels between formerly depressed suicide attempters and age and gender matched normal controls (0.23 ng/ml +/- 0.25 vs. 0.19 ng/ml +/- 0.16). When compared to normal controls, suicide attempt patients had a significantly higher score on the temperament dimension "harm avoidance" and a lower score on the character dimension "self-directedness." No significant correlation was found between sIL-2R values and TCI dimensions. We propose that the liability to suicidal behavior among suicide attempters susceptible to depressive symptomatology may be related to high harm avoidance and low self-directedness.     

An investigation into differences between the structure of temperament and the structure of personality

This article analyzes the differences between an activity-specific temperament model and the Big Five personality model using the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire--Compact (STQ-77). The STQ-77 has 3 emotionality scales and 9 scales assessing 3 dynamic aspects (arousal, lability, and sensory sensitivity) in 3 areas of activity (physical, verbal-social, and mental). The results of administration of the Russian STQ-77, NEO-FFI, and SSS-V to 174 Russian participants showed how components of temperament can represent the traits described in the Big Five model. The confirmatory factor analysis of the English STQ-77 and the results of a study involving a prolonged word classification task with 221 Canadian participants showed the benefits of the activity-specific approach, separating temperament traits in three areas of activity. Such specificity of temperament traits differentiates them from personality traits.     

Stress-sensitivity and reciprocal associations between stressful events and adolescent temperament

This study aimed to elucidate the longitudinal, bidirectional associations between stressful life events (SLEs) and adolescent temperament. Subsequently, the study investigated whether the effects of SLEs on future temperament were moderated by (a) a cumulative sensitivity gene index (b) the 5-HTTLPR (the polymorphism most consistently indicated as a sensitivity genotype) and (c) pre/perinatal risk. Data were used from TRAILS, a large population cohort of Dutch adolescents (n = 1475). Temperament was assessed at 11, 16 and 19 years. Data of SLEs that occurred between age 0–11, 11–16, and 16–19 were captured using interviews. The results indicated that SLEs and temperament traits are associated from childhood to adolescence and that the direction of the effects differed between temperament traits. Whereas SLEs were found to predict subsequent fear, SLEs were predicted by, but not predictive of, shyness and affiliation. For effortful control and frustration a fully reciprocal model was found. The cumulative sensitivity gene index, 5-HTTLPR and the pre/perinatal risk did not moderate the effects of SLEs on future temperament.     

The Mediating Role of Resiliency in the Relationship Between Temperament and Posttraumatic Growth

The purpose of the research is to investigate the mediating role of resiliency in the relation between temperamental traits and posttraumatic growth. Data of 74 persons who have experienced the death of someone close were analyzed. The range of age of the participants was 21–74 years (M = 38.4; SD = 15.5). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI), the Formal Characteristics of Behavior–Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI), and the Resiliency Assessment Scale were used in the study. Resiliency plays a mediating role among four traits of temperament (Briskness, Emotional Reactivity, Endurance, and Activity) and posttraumatic growth. Resiliency seems to modify the direct impact of temperamental traits on positive posttraumatic changes.     

Trauma symptoms,temperament traits,social support and the intensity of pain in a Polish sample of patients suffering from chronic pain

The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between the intensity of pain, treated as the explained variable, and the level of trauma symptoms, as appear in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), temperament traits postulated by the Regulative Theory of Temperament and aspects of social support among patients suffering from chronic pain (arthritis and low-back pain). To assess the intensity of pain among participants we used the Numerical Rating Scale (NRS-11). The level of trauma symptoms was assessed with the PTSD Factorial Version inventory (PTSD-F). Temperament was measured with the Formal Characteristics of Behaviour – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI). Social support was tested with the Berlin Social Support Scales (BSSS). The results of our study suggest that significant predictors of pain intensity among chronic pain sufferers were trauma symptoms. We also noticed that some temperament traits (i.e., emotional reactivity) increased the level of global trauma symptoms, which, in turn, intensified the level of pain. In addition, we showed that global trauma symptoms decreased the support participants actually received.