Children's temperament in the US and China: similarities and differences

We report the results of research investigating temperamental characteristics of children in the People's Republic of China and the US using a parent-report instrument, the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), defining temperament as individual differences in emotional, motoric, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation. Subjects were 624 6- to 7-year-old children, from Shanghai and the north-western region of the US. The 15 CBQ scales were factored for both samples, employing a principal axis factor analysis with an oblique rotation. Our findings indicated considerable similarity of factor structure in the two cultures, obtaining three factors labelled Surgency, Negative Affect, and Attentional Self-Regulation or Effortful Control. Differences across cultures were also found, with Surgency and Effortful Control scores being relatively higher than Negative Affect in the US sample and Negative Affect being relatively higher than Surgency and Effortful Control in the Chinese sample. Gender differences were also found to vary across cultures. Our findings are congruent with a view of underlying cultural similarities in temperamental variability across these cultures, influenced over time by the children's culturally varied experience.     

Temperament in childhood predicts body mass in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study.

This study examined associations of temperament at ages 6 to 12 with body-mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) at ages 24 to 30 years. The participants were 619 men and women derived from the population-based Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Temperament was operationalized as (negative) emotionality, sociability, and activity. High emotionality predicted increased BMI, independently of WC, and independently of childhood and adulthood risk factors for adult obesity. None of the temperament dimensions had any associations with WC after controlling for BMI. The findings suggest that temperamental difficulty in childhood may be a useful risk indicator for general body mass in adulthood, and the mechanisms relating temperament with body mass should be further explored.     

Infant Predictors of Toddler Effortful Control: A Multi‐method Developmentally Sensitive Approach

Effortful control (EC) is a form of self‐regulation characterized by inhibition of dominant responses in favour of more adaptive subdominant responses. In the present study, temperamental antecedents in infancy were examined in relationship to toddler EC. Parents reported on infant temperament at 6, 8, 10, and 12 months, using the regulatory capacity/orienting (RCO) factor of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire‐Revised. Laboratory indicators of this temperamental construct were also collected at each time point via the Temperament Laboratory Assessment. Relations between changes in temperament across the first year of life and toddler EC (mean age = 22 months) were examined using multilevel modelling. Parent‐reported RCO and the component subscale of cuddliness more specifically were the only temperamental variables that prospectively predicted toddler EC. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Maternal pre‐ and postnatal anxiety and infant temperament. The generation R study

The aim of this study was to investigate whether maternal anxiety that is temporary or chronic during the pre‐ and postnatal period predicts infant temperament. Mothers of 2997 infants in a population‐based birth cohort reported levels of pregnancy‐specific anxiety (Pregnancy Outcome Questionnaire) and general anxiety symptoms (Brief Symptom Inventory) prenatal and at 6 months postnatal. Temperament characteristics were assessed by maternal report using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire—Revised when the infants were 6 months of age. Maternal pregnancy‐specific and general anxiety during the pre‐ and postnatal period were all independently associated with perceived infant temperamental difficulties. Chronically high maternal anxiety predicted the highest perceived infant activity level and negative affectivity. These findings show that different forms of maternal anxiety during both the pre‐ and postnatal period are independently related to perceived temperamental problems in infancy. They also emphasize the significance of chronic maternal anxiety for infant mental health. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Québécois,Haitian, and Vietnamese Mothers' Report of Infant Temperament

Research has shown different temperamental attributes in infants of various cultural origins. Some authors have suggested that these temperamental attributes might be related to biological and genetic differences. In the present study, mothers' reports of infant temperament, using the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire (Carey & McDevitt, 1978), were compared among Québécois, Haitian, and Vietnamese groups living in Montréal. Results indicated patterns of differences across groups that essentially distinguished the Québécois from the other two groups. These two groups reported more difficult temperamental characteristics in their infants. The values and caretaking practices related to the specific cultural contexts, contrasted with the values expressed through a North-American validated questionnaire, may explain the variations in infant temperament reports. Further studies should examine more thoroughly the relation between observed infant behaviours and maternal reports.     

Infant temperament,pleasure in parenting,and marital happiness in adoptive families

Temperamental characteristics have been related to later externalizing and internalizing behavioral outcomes. To assess the relationship between temperament and the early family environment, we measured infant temperament, pleasure in parenting, and marital happiness via parent report in 99 families with a nonrelative adoptive infant. Perceptions of child temperament were assessed using two subscales of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ; Rothbart, 1981). Mothers and fathers who rated their adoptive child as showing more Distress to Limitations (on the IBQ) reported less pleasure in routine parenting activities; this effect was mediated by marital happiness for fathers. Mothers reported less pleasure in parenting with infants perceived to be more temperamentally fearful (on the IBQ). The bidirectional relationship between temperamental characteristics and pleasure in parenting is discussed. © 2001 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Temperament in children with Down syndrome and in prematurely born children

Parents of three groups of children completed the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ). Participants were children with Down syndrome aged 4-11 years (n = 55), prematurely born children aged 5 years (n = 97), and a group of normally developing kindergarten children 5-7 years of age (n = 91). Mean levels and factor structures on the CBQ were compared between the three groups. The children with Down syndrome had less attentional focusing and expressed less inhibitory control and less sadness than the normally developing children. There were also group differences in temperament structures, especially a clearer emotional factor of "surgency" among the children with Down syndrome. The only significant difference in mean temperament scores between the premature children and the control group was that the former evinced less attentional focussing. The temperament structures in the Norwegian samples were very similar to those reported in earlier studies, conducted in China and the US.     

Intrapersonal and interpersonal risk factors for peer victimization in immigrant youth in Finland

This study (a) compared native Finns and immigrant children with respect to different forms of peer victimization and (b) tested whether intrapersonal (e.g., depression) and interpersonal (e.g., peer rejection) sample was drawn from the first phase of a large intervention evaluation project, KiVa, in Finland, composed of 4,957 native Finns (51% girls), 146 first-generation immigrants (48% girls), and 310 second-generation immigrants (53% girls) 9 to 12 years of age. The concurrent data included self- and peer reports collected via Internet-based questionnaires. Compared with native youth, first- and second-generation immigrants were more often targets of both peer- and self-reported victimization. Both immigrant groups experienced higher levels of physical, racist, and sexual victimization than natives. Furthermore, second-generation immigrants reported higher levels of property damage, threats, and cybervictimization than native Finns. Significant indirect effects were found between immigrant status and victimization. Interpersonal but not intrapersonal risk factors helped to explain these associations.     

Personality development from late adolescence to young adulthood: differential stability, normative maturity, and evidence for the maturity-stability hypothesis

This investigation examined personality development during the transition from adolescence to adulthood using the brief form of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (Patrick, Curtin, & Tellegen, 2002). Parent and self-reports of personality were obtained in 1994 (average age=17.60 years), and self-reports were obtained in 2003 (average age=27.24 years). There was evidence of both differential stability and normative changes in the direction of increased functional maturity during this transition. Moreover, adolescents with more mature personalities in 1994 tended to show fewer personality changes from 1994 to 2003. These maturity-stability effects held when parent reports were used to assess personality. All told, there was evidence of both stability and change in personality during the transition to adulthood.     

Structure of personality pathology in normal and clinical samples: Spanish validation of the DAPP-BQ

Given that the DSM taxonomy of personality disorders is flawed by severe classificatory problems, the development of alternative classificatory systems, such as the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ), has now become a priority. This study examined the internal consistency, second-order factor structure, and criterion validity of a Spanish translation of the DAPP-BQ in two samples: subjects with personality disorder (n = 155) and subjects from the general population (n = 300). Alpha coefficients ranged satisfactorily from .75 to .93. Four second-order factors of Emotional Dysregulation, Dissocial Behavior, Inhibitedness, and Compulsivity were obtained, which were replicable between samples and identical to those reported in the literature. Finally, disordered subjects scored significantly higher than normal subjects on 17 of the 18 DAPP-BQ traits. Some pending issues in the construction of an alternative taxonomy of personality disorders are discussed.     

Cross-cultural differences in driver aggression,aberrant, and positive driver behaviors

The present study investigated differences in driver aggression for self and others within countries and cultural differences between driver aggression, aberrant, and positive driver behaviors across five countries (Estonia, Greece, Kosovo, Russia, and Turkey). It was predicted that drivers from these five countries differ significantly in terms of driver aggression for self and others, aberrant, and positive driver behaviors. In the study, 743 participants completed the questionnaire package, including the Driver Aggression Indicators Scale (DAIS), the short version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) with items from the Positive Driver Behavior Scale, and the Demographic Information Form. Paired samples T-tests were conducted to examine the differences in driving aggression between self and others in the five countries. The results indicated that, except for Russian drivers, drivers reported that other drivers had higher driver aggression than themselves. To examine the cross-cultural differences, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) tests were conducted for the two dimensions of the DAIS (hostile aggression and revenge, and aggressive warnings) and the three dimensions of the DBQ with items from the Positive Driver Behavior Scale (errors, violations, and positive driver behaviors). Cross-country item-based comparisons were then made for the DAIS and the DBQ. The ANCOVA results showed significant differences in both item-based and subscale comparisons. Russian drivers were significantly different from other drivers in terms of hostile aggression and the revenge subscales of the DAIS and positive driver behaviors. Turkish drivers were significantly different from other drivers in several items of the DBQ, including errors and violations. The findings suggest that culture-specific strategies might be conducted for traffic-related anger management. Furthermore, differences in errors and violations among the five countries may be due to cultural differences. Positive driver behaviors might be better promoted in countries by drawing on their distinct cultural road safety strategies.     

Infant withdrawal and behavior problems in urban Chinese toddlers: Roles of maternal sensitivity to infant distress and emerging delay ability

Using a longitudinal design, this study examined the associations between infant temperamental withdrawal and behavior problems during toddlerhood and tested the moderating effects of maternal sensitivity to infant distress (MSID) and toddlers’ ability to delay gratification (ADG) in urban Chinese families. Participants were 84 Chinese children (37 boys, 47 girls) and their mothers. When the infants were 6 months old (T1: infancy), their mothers reported their temperamental withdrawal, and research assistants observed and coded MSID by using a subscale of the Maternal Behavior Q-Sort during free-play interaction. When the toddlers were 1 year old (T2: early toddlerhood), their mothers reported their internalizing and externalizing problems. When the toddlers were 2 years old (T3: late toddlerhood), their mothers again reported their internalizing and externalizing problems, and their abilities of delay gratification were assessed through a laboratory-based procedure. Infant temperamental withdrawal was associated with increased internalizing problems in early toddlerhood and increased externalizing problems during middle to late toddlerhood; infants whose mothers were extremely high sensitive or low sensitive to their distress or those with late poor ability of delay gratification were at particular risk. The findings highlight the importance of matching parenting and promotion of self-control for temperamental withdrawn children's optimal development.     

Temperamental consequences of infant difficultness

Two central issues pertaining to the construct of infant temperamental “difficultness” were investigated in this longitudinal project. First, the cross-time convergent validity of two parent-report measures of temperament was examined. Second, the temperamental consequences of difficultness during infancy were studied by prospectively following children from infancy to adolescence. Additionally, using MANOVA and structural equation modeling, gender comparisons were conducted to determine whether or not the construct of difficultness was similar for males and females. Analyses were based on parent reports (Ns=96−110) of infant difficultness on the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ) when children were 18 months of age. The nine temperament dimensions of the New York Longitudinal Study model were also assessed by parent report inventories when children were 2, 3, 3.5, 5, 8, 10, and 12 years old. Results showed no pervasive evidence of gender differences in infant difficultness. Convergent validity between the ICQ and subsequent temperament measures was evidenced by significant cross-time canonical correlations reaching to moderate magnitude and significant bivariate correlations between infant difficultness and specific temperament dimensions. Temperamental difficultness during infancy predicted subsequent adverse temperamental qualities such as unadaptability and negative mood at every age from 2 through 12 years.     

Benign joint hypermobility syndrome: psychological features and psychopathological symptoms in a sample pain-free at evaluation1

30 subjects with BJHS (Hypermobile) (M age = 32.3 yr., SD = 10.4) and two control groups, 25 healthy subjects (Healthy) (M age = 33.9 yr., SD = 9.3) and 30 fibromyalgic patients (Fibromyalgic) (M age = 32.2 yr., SD=9.4), were given the Symptom Checklist-90-R, the Illness Behavior Questionnaire, the Female Functional Symptoms Frequency (FFF) and the Male Functional Symptoms Frequency (MFF), derived from the DSM-III-R, evaluating functional somatic disturbances and their intensity, and the Symptom Questionnaire. The mean scores for the Hypermobile group showed significant psychological distress and increased frequency and intensity of somatic symptoms. Scores on Anxiety and Somatic Symptoms, General Hypochondriasis, Disease Conviction, Affective Disturbance, Denial, and Irritability were significantly higher in the Hypermobile than in the Healthy group. Elevated scores were found for the Fibromyalgic group on the Illness Behavior Questionnaire subscales for Psychological vs Somatic Focus, Disease Affirmation, and Discriminating Factors when compared with the Hypermobile group. Considerable emotional symptoms were detected which should not be underestimated by physicians when establishing an integrated biopsychosocial therapy.     

Maternal ratings of infant regulatory competence from 6 to 12 months: influence of perceived stress, birth-weight, and intervention: a randomized controlled trial

Mothers’ reports of preterm and term infants’ temperament from 6 to 12 months of age were studied, with intervention and stress as predictors. Preterm infants with a birth weight <2000 g were randomized to an intervention (71) or a control (69) group. A control group of healthy term infants (74) was also established. The intervention was a modified version of the “Mother–Infant Transaction Program”, aimed at sensitizing caregivers to the infants’ individual characteristics. Temperament was measured with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, and stress with the Parenting Stress Index. There were no group differences in temperament at 6 or 12 months or in change during the same period. There was a strong association between stress and negative reactivity in the preterm control group at 12 months. In the preterm intervention group, there were strong negative correlations between stress and regulatory competence at 6 months. The intervention seemed to change the relationship between stress and temperament. The strength of this association indicates that the intervention sensitized mothers to the temperamental regulatory competence of their preterm infants.     

Dimensional assessment of personality pathology in female and male juvenile delinquents

A developmental perspective implies similar personality pathology dimensions for adolescents and adults. The present study examined the applicability of a dimensional approach in incarcerated delinquent female and male juveniles using the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ). A sample of detained adolescents (n = 146) was compared to adolescent students (n = 98) and a healthy control group of adults (n = 82). Additionally, psychopathology was assessed in the incarcerated juveniles using the Youth Self Report (YSR). Analyses of variance revealed higher scores on personality disorder traits for juveniles compared to adult controls; the highest scores were observed in criminal juveniles. Hypothesized relationships could be confirmed within the criminal sample between the DAPP factor Emotional Dysregulation and the YSR Internalization syndrome scale, and between the DAPP factor Dissocial Behavior and the YSR Externalization syndrome scale. Moreover, gender differences in the criminal sample are discussed. Results indicate that the DAPP-BQ can assess personality disorder traits in delinquent and nondetained juveniles with sufficient group and criterion validity.     

The influence of attachment and temperament on venipuncture distress in 14-month-old infants: the Generation R Study

Objective

This study examined the effects of attachment and temperament on infant distress during venipuncture.

Method

The study was embedded in the Generation R Study, a prospective population-based study. Two different research procedures (i.e., blood sampling and the Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure) yielded measures of venipuncture distress and attachment security and disorganization in 246 infants aged 14 months. Four temperament traits (distress to limitations, fear, recovery from distress, and sadness) were assessed using the maternally reported Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised, at the age of 6 months.

Results

There were no differences between mean levels of distress during venipuncture in infants classified as having insecure attachment, but there was a trend for disorganized attachment. The temperament traits were not related to distress. However, children with a disorganized attachment and higher temperamental fear had more venipuncture distress.

Conclusion

When different risk factors are present simultaneously, infant distress is heightened.     

Temperament, character, and attachment patterns in borderline personality disorder.

The aim of this study was to assess the specificity of the association between temperamental vulnerability, character deficits, and Borderline personality disorder (BPD), controlling for the effects of attachment patterns. A total of 44 BPD patients were compared with 98 non-BPD patients with other cluster B Personality Disorder (PD) diagnoses, 39 patients with any cluster A or cluster C PD diagnoses, 70 patients with no PD diagnosis, and 206 nonclinical patients. All patients were administered the Temperament and Character Inventory, the Parental Bonding Instrument, and the Attachment Style Questionnaire. Multivariate and univariate tests showed that BPD patients differed significantly from all control groups on Novelty Seeking and Cooperativeness. These differences remained significant when controlling for the effect of attachment.     

National identification and attitudes towards Russian immigrants in Finland: Investigating the role of perceived threats and gains

In this cross‐sectional study, we examined the relationship between national identification of majority Finns (nation‐wide probability sample, N = 335) and their attitudes towards Russian immigrants living in Finland. As previous research indicates both possibilities, we tested whether this relationship was moderated or mediated by threats and gains perceived to result from immigration. The results supported the mediation hypothesis; those individuals who identified stronger with their national ingroup perceived more threats than gains related to increased immigration and these perceptions, in turn, were associated with more negative attitudes towards immigrants. The role of realistic as opposed to symbolic threats and gains was particularly pronounced. The implications of the results are discussed in terms of their theoretical relevance and practical means to improve intergroup relations, with a particular focus on the relations between Finns and Russian immigrants in Finland.     

Transition to motherhood and the self: measurement, stability, and change

Different ways of conceptualizing and measuring change in attitudes during transition to motherhood are examined. A series of analyses was performed on data from a cross-sectional sample (N = 667) and a smaller longitudinal sample (n = 48) to demonstrate sound psychometric properties for 2 new scales and to show construct comparability across different phases of childbearing. For Childbearing Attitudes Questionnaire, results demonstrated equality of covariance for 16 scales and comparability of structure and meaning of 4 higher order factors--identification with motherhood, social orientation, self-confidence, and negative aspects of giving birth. For Mothering Self-Definition Questionnaire, results demonstrated equality of covariance of 5 scales and comparability of structure and meaning of a single higher order factor, interpreted as reflecting positive feelings about one's mothering characteristics. Analyses of correlations and mean differences identified areas of change and stability.