IMINCE: An unrestricted factor-analysis-based program for assessing measurement invariance

In this article, a Windows program for analyzing measurement invariance in two different populations is described. Factor analysis is a common way of assessing measurement invariance, and restricted factor analysis is now the most popular method. However, applied researchers have usually found that the theoretical advantages of restricted factor analysis do not always apply in practical situations. For example, when the participant sample is large, as is the case in Internet-based questionnaires, the available software for restricted factor analysis might fail to converge on a solution. Our program is based on unrestricted factor analysis and considers the three parameters that define factor invariance: difficulties, discriminations, and residual variances. The statistical significance of the tests for evaluating invariance is obtained using Bootstrap resampling procedures. A real-life example demonstrates the usefulness of the program.     

Satisfaction with life scale: analysis of factorial invariance for adolescents and elderly persons

The purpose of this work is to analyze the factorial invariance of the Satisfaction With Life Scale across samples of adolescents and elderly persons. Data from 266 subjects were analyzed. Half were Spanish junior high-school students (65 girls and 68 boys) and the other half were Spanish elderly people (68 women and 65 men). Single-group analyses showed an acceptable one-factor model for both adolescent and elderly groups. Sequential multigroup analyses to test the equivalence of factor structures for adolescent and elderly groups showed that factor loadings and variances are not invariant. The scale is sensitive to age in these groups.     

The structure of cognitive abilities in youths with manic symptoms: a factorial invariance study

This study compared the structure of cognitive ability (specifically, verbal/crystallized [Gc] and visual-spatial ability [Gv]), as measured in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, in youth with manic symptoms with a nationally representative group of similarly aged youth. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis found the majority of the estimated parameters were invariant between the groups, although there was a difference in the intercepts for the Similarities subtest and difference in unique variances for the Picture Completion, Comprehension, and Picture Arrangement subtests. Thus, although there are many neurological changes associated with manic symptoms, the structure of verbal/crystallized and visual-spatial abilities appear relatively robust and invariant. As Gc and Gv are the primary domains on all the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, results also indicate that clinical interpretation of the Wechsler scales may be appropriate to measure cognitive performance in youths with manic symptoms.     

Meaning in life of young and elderly adults: An examination of the factorial validity and invariance of the Life Regard Index

The main question of the present investigation was whether the Life Regard Index (LRI) is an adequate instrument to study possible differences between young and elderly adults with regard to experienced meaning in life. Participants in this study were a group of 206 young adults (M= 17.8 years, 49.0% female) and a group of 373 elderly adults (M = 65.90 years, 58.8% female). Respondents completed a Dutch paper-and-pencil version of the LRI. The LISREL confirmatory factor analytic model was used to test for the equivalence of measurement and of structure of the instrument. Results show that in both age groups the items of the LRI were found to be distributed to the two a priori dimensions of meaning in life, Framework and Fulfillment. Only the factor loadings of the Framework items were invariant across both groups. Neither the error of measurement, nor the structure of the underlying concept were equivalent for young and elderly adults. Young adults were found to experience less meaning in life than the elderly.     

Variability, covariation, and invariance with respect to coordinate systems in motor control: reply to Smeets and Louw (2007)

In their comment on the tolerance-noise covariation (TNC) method for decomposing variability by H. Müller and D. Sternad (2003, 2004b), J. B. J. Smeets and S. Louw show that covariation (C), as defined within the TNC method, is not invariant with respect to coordinate transformations and contend that it is, therefore, meaningless. Although the observation is correct, their interpretation is misleading in the following ways: (a) They equate covariation C with the known statistical quantity covariance and noise (N) with standard deviations. The two quantities C and N are conceptually different statistical measures. (b) Dependency on the reference frame is not only a feature of C but of all 3 components. However, such dependency is ubiquitous in motor control. (c) As the frame of reference in biological systems is poorly understood, the TNC method may afford evaluation of different coordinates for control.     

Observed parenting behavior with teens: measurement invariance and predictive validity across race

Previous reports supporting measurement equality between European American and African American families have often focused on self-reported risk factors or observed parent behavior with young children. This study examines equality of measurement of observer ratings of parenting behavior with adolescents during structured tasks; mean levels of observed parenting; and predictive validity of teen self-reports of antisocial behaviors and beliefs using a sample of 163 African American and 168 European American families. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses supported measurement invariance across ethnic groups for four measures of observed parenting behavior: prosocial rewards, psychological costs, antisocial rewards, and problem solving. Some mean-level differences were found: African American parents exhibited lower levels of prosocial rewards, higher levels of psychological costs, and lower problem solving when compared to European Americans. No significant mean difference was found in rewards for antisocial behavior. Multigroup structural equation models suggested comparable relationships across race (predictive validity) between parenting constructs and youth antisocial constructs (i.e., drug initiation, positive drug attitudes, antisocial attitudes, problem behaviors) in all but one of the tested relationships. This study adds to existing evidence that family-based interventions targeting parenting behaviors can be generalized to African American families.     

包容型领导:概念、测量及与相关变量的关系

包容型领导(Inclusive Leadership)作为一种新兴的领导方式,强调关注和满足下属的需求,在与下属的互动中表现出开放性、有效性和易接近性。研究者梳理了包容型领导的起源与概念、结构维度与测量,分析了与其他类型领导者之间的比较,阐述了相关实证研究,强化了本土文化的权变作用。未来研究应继续完善包容型领导的概念与维度、拓展其研究层次与方法、借鉴其与其他领导理论的比较研究视角,丰富其研究情境的有效性。     

On the relationship between ratio of number of variables to number of factors and factorial determinacy

It is shown that an important distinction can be made between determinacy of common-factors and determinacy of unique-factors and that determinacy can be used as a criterion to establish a lower bound for the ratio of number of variables to number of factors necessary if specified levels of common- and unique-factor determinacy are to be attained.The Illinois Department of Mental Health Drug Abuse Program is co-sponsored by the State of Illinois and the Department of Psychiatry, Division of the Biological Sciences and Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago. Send reprint requests to Drug Abuse Programs—Research, East Pavillion, Museum of Science and Industry, 57th Street and South Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60637.     

Longitudinal measurement invariance of psychosocial measures in physical activity research: an application to adolescent data

The current study served as a practical and substantive guide to establishing longitudinal measurement invariance of psychosocial measures commonly used in adolescent physical activity (PA) research. Psychosocial data on an initial sample of 878 adolescents (ages 11–15) recruited through primary care providers were provided at baseline, 6, 12, and 24 months. The target measures included family support, peer support, decisional balance (pros, cons), self‐efficacy, and behavioral strategies. Five of the six psychosocial measures exhibited strict longitudinal measurement invariance, with the sixth measure (self‐efficacy) exhibiting strong longitudinal measurement invariance. These findings support the equivalence of these measures across time, and provide the foundation to substantively interpret group differences and associations involving these measures and PA.     

The perceived vulnerability to disease scale: Cross-cultural measurement invariance and associations with fear of COVID-19 across 16 countries

Using cross-sectional data from N = 4274 young adults across 16 countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, we examined the cross-cultural measurement invariance of the perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) scale and tested the hypothesis that the association between PVD and fear of COVID-19 is stronger under high disease threat [that is, absence of COVID-19 vaccination, living in a country with lower Human Development Index (HDI) or higher COVID-19 mortality]. Results supported a bi-factor Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling model where items loaded on a global PVD factor, and on the sub-factors of Perceived Infectability and Germ Aversion. However, cross-national invariance could only be obtained on the configural level with a reduced version of the PVD scale (PVD-r), suggesting that the concept of PVD may vary across nations. Moreover, higher PVD-r was consistently associated with greater fear of COVID-19 across all levels of disease threat, but this association was especially pronounced among individuals with a COVID-19 vaccine, and in contexts where COVID-19 mortality was high. The present research brought clarity into the dimensionality of the PVD measure, discussed its suitability and limitations for cross-cultural research, and highlighted the pandemic-related conditions under which higher PVD is most likely to go along with psychologically maladaptive outcomes, such as fear of COVID-19.     

Factor structure and measurement invariance of the multidimensional driving style inventory across gender and age: An ESEM approach

The Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI) is the most comprehensive measure of typical driving behavior to date and has been frequently used to compare driving styles across different groups of drivers, particularly between gender- and age-related groups. However, the factor structure of MDSI has not been clearly established and its measurement invariance has not been demonstrated. The goal of the present study was to examine the internal structure and measurement invariance of the MDSI across gender and age. A sample of 1277 drivers from Argentina responded to the Argentinian version of the MDSI. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) was used to test the factor structure and measurement invariance across females (n = 602) and males (n = 675), and across young (18–29, n = 558), adult (30–49, n = 395) and older (50 and older, n = 317) drivers. The results showed that a 36-item six-factor ESEM model represented by risky, angry, dissociative, anxious, distress-reduction and careful and patient driving styles was the best model based on fit indices and interpretability. Configural, weak and strong invariance of the six-factor ESEM model across gender and age was also supported. The MDSI in its Argentinian version is equivalent across gender and age, supporting the validity of previous research findings examining gender and age differences in driving styles. Future studies should examine the measurement invariance of the MDSI across other relevant driving-related variables.     

Perceived responsibility to act: An investigation with respect to registering willingness to become a posthumous organ donor

Two questionnaire studies (Ns=238 and 497) were guided by the original theoretical specification of the triangle model of responsibility. These investigated the relationship between perceived responsibility to register willingness to posthumously donate one's organs and people's self‐reported actual and intended registration behaviour. Exploratory factor analyses suggested that various responsibility‐related constructs could be differentiated, several of which explained unique variance in participants' registration status. Although predominantly derived from it, these constructs provided little support for the specific manner in which the triangle model has previously been conceptualized and operationalized. Implications for theoretical development, future empirical research, and organ procurement are discussed.     

Measuring current achievement motivation with the QCM: Short form development and investigation of measurement invariance

This article explores the measurement properties of the Questionnaire on Current Motivation (QCM; Rheinberg, Vollmeyer, & Burns, 2001), which measures four factors of current achievement motivation (anxiety, challenge, interest, and probability of success) in the context of taking an abstract reasoning test. Two studies were conducted. In study 1, the measurement model of the QCM was tested, and a short form consisting of 12 of the original 18 QCM items was derived. Data were obtained from N = 350 students completing the QCM in anticipation of working on a test of Latin Square Tasks. In study 2, the measurement properties of the short form were replicated with data from a sample of N = 509 students. Measurement invariance with respect to gender was investigated using multigroup CFA models. The results showed that the assumptions of equal numbers of factors, factor loadings, and residual variances could be confirmed, but evidence for full intercept invariance was not obtained. There were significant differences in the latent means for anxiety and probability of success between female and male test takers, but none of these two factors had an influence on actual test performance, which was instead significantly predicted by interest in the task.     

Alternative factor models and factorial invariance of the GHQ-12: a large sample analysis using confirmatory factor analysis

This study tested alternative factor models of the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12), based on previous research findings, with a large sample using confirmatory factor analysis. An alternative models framework was used to test 6 factor analytic models. A 3-factor model was the best explanation of the sample data. The 3 factors were labeled Anxiety-Depression, Social Dysfunction, and Loss of Confidence. The model was found to be factorially invariant between men and women. The utility of the 3 subscales, as opposed to the total GHQ-12 score, is questioned as they appear to provide little information beyond that of a general factor.     

Personal assessment of intimacy in relationships: Validity and measurement invariance across gender

IntroductionIntimacy is central in close relationships and a variety of definitions and instruments exist in scientific literature, making this concept complex to investigate. Furthermore, gender differences were identified in the definition and experience of intimacy.ObjectivesThis study aims to confirm the three-factor structure of the personal assessment of intimacy in relationships (PAIR, Schaefer & Olson, 1981), commonly used in research and marital therapy, developed by Moore et al. (1998) and to examine the measurement equivalence of the scale across gender.MethodA confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the responses of 313 women and 251 men in committed relationships in a French population. Measurement equivalence of the scale across gender was then conducted with the best-fitting model.ResultsThe results of CFA and post-hoc analyses revealed that the three-factor model revised with 18 items was the best fit to the data: (1) engagement (10 items), (2) communication (5 items), (3) shared friends (3 items). PAIR-18 displayed a lack of metric and scalar invariance across gender but estimated means of latent variables is not very different between the full invariant model and the unconstraint models.ConclusionNevertheless, consideration of gender differences in the construct of intimacy is very important for theoretical research on intimacy in romantic relationships and for the interventions of marital therapists based on intimacy.     

Relating latent class membership to external variables: An overview

In this article we provide an overview of existing approaches for relating latent class membership to external variables of interest. We extend on the work of Nylund-Gibson et al. (Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2019, 26, 967), who summarize models with distal outcomes by providing an overview of most recommended modeling options for models with covariates and larger models with multiple latent variables as well. We exemplify the modeling approaches using data from the General Social Survey for a model with a distal outcome where underlying model assumptions are violated, and a model with multiple latent variables. We discuss software availability and provide example syntax for the real data examples in Latent GOLD.     

Assessing the factorial invariance of Harter's self-concept measures: comparing preadolescents with and without spina bifida using child,parent, and teacher report

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the structure of children's self-concept, as rated by children themselves on the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; Harter, 1985), and the structure of children's competence, as rated by their parents on the Rating Scale of Child's Actual Behavior (PRS) and teachers on the Rating Scale of Child's Actual Behavior (TRS; Harter, 1985), are similar across samples of children with and without spina bifida (children were 8 and 9 years of age; n = 68 in each sample). Using confirmatory factor analyses, results revealed that a multidimensional model for the SPPC and the TRS fit the data well for both samples. On the other hand, the model for both mothers' and fathers' PRS ratings did not fit the data for the spina bifida sample. Further tests of factorial invariance conducted on the SPPC and TRS revealed that the spina bifida and able-bodied samples tended to have the same pattern and magnitude of factor loadings for both instruments. There was some invariance, however, in the amount of unique error variance accounted for across samples. These results bolster our confidence in using the SPPC and TRS to compare children with and without spina bifida.     

Infant responses to approaching objects: An indicator of response to distal variables

Infants show an adaptive avoidance response to approaching objects. The response is affected by the closeness and speed of approach. It is mediated by visual variables. Air-pressure changes do not elicit the response. This kind of response implies discrimination and response to distal variables rather than merely to their proximal mediators.     

Mentor Support Provisions Scale: Measure dimensionality,measurement invariance,and associations with adolescent school functioning

Mentoring relationships can have important effects on adolescents' psychosocial and academic outcomes; however, the transactions within mentoring relationships that may account for impact on psychosocial and academic outcomes are not well understood. This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Mentor Support Provisions Scale (MSPS), a tool for assessing the types of support that mentors provide. Exploratory factor analyses and confirmatory factor analyses were used to determine measure dimensionality. Findings indicated acceptable fit with a three-factor structure: Academic Support, Intimacy, and Warmth. The MSPS was found to have scalar invariance; thus, factor loadings and intercepts are the same across student sex and ethnic groups (e.g., White, Hispanic, and Black). In structural equation modeling analyses, the three latent factors predicted academic engagement and reading and math achievement, above baseline scores. Research and practical uses of the MSPS are discussed.