The trichotomous achievement goal model and intrinsic motivation: a sequential mediational analysis

This experiment was designed to extend the research by Elliot and Harackiewicz (1996) on the trichotomous achievement goal model in several important ways and to more thoroughly document the processes through which the goals in the trichotomous model influence intrinsic motivation. Results indicated that performance-avoidance goals undermined intrinsic motivation relative to performance-approach and mastery goals; the latter goals evidenced the same intrinsic motivation. These results were obtained using highly evaluative performance goal manipulations, with early adolescent participants, and for a motor task relevant to physical ability. Sequential mediational analyses revealed that competence valuation, state anxiety, and task absorption processes accounted for the observed effects. Perceived competence served neither mediating nor moderating roles.     

The interactive effects of achievement goals and task complexity on enjoyment,mental focus,and effort

Several empirical studies have suggested that achievement goal researchers should put a greater emphasis on identifying factors that may moderate the effects of achievement goals on motivation and related outcomes. In line with this recommendation, the current study sought to examine how one task characteristics (task complexity) may moderate the impact of achievement goals on the motivational outcomes of task enjoyment, mental focus, and exerted effort. Consistent with both the theoretical foundations of achievement goals and the existing research literature, we hypothesized that achievement goals would interact with task complexity in their effects on motivation such that the positive effects of mastery goals would be stronger for complex tasks, the positive effects of performance‐approach goals would be stronger for simple tasks, and the negative effects of performance‐avoidance goals would be weaker for simple tasks. Data collected from 347 undergraduate students assigned to simple or complex task conditions when performing a puzzle‐based task supported these hypotheses. Under complex task conditions, the positive effects of mastery goals were amplified, whereas simple task conditions enhanced the positive effects of performance‐approach goals and minimized the negative impact of performance‐avoidance goals. Future directions for research on achievement goals are discussed, along with potential practical implications of the results of this study.     

The influence of mastery‐avoidance goals on performance improvement

Two experiments focused on examining the influence of mastery‐avoidance goals on performance improvement, and more specifically, on mastery‐avoidance goals grounded in an intrapersonal standard. That is, herein, mastery‐avoidance goals entail striving to avoid doing worse than one has done before. Both experiments demonstrated that in a multiple‐trial context, mastery‐avoidance goals are deleterious for performance improvement relative to mastery‐approach, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance goals, and a no goal baseline. The findings were shown to be independent of participants' perceptions of goal difficulty, and were consistent not only across methodology but also across type of participant (undergraduates versus individuals in the workforce), and type and length of achievement task (a verbal skills task versus an ecologically valid managerial competencies exercise). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sociocultural antecedents of academic motivation and achievement: Role of values and achievement motives in achievement goals and academic performance

With a view to understand the influence of culture on achievement motivation, the study aimed to test the hypothesized mediating role of individual‐oriented and social‐oriented achievement motives in linking value orientations (e.g. achievement, security, conformity, hedonism) to achievement goals (i.e. mastery‐approach, mastery‐avoidance, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance goals) as predictors of English and mathematics achievements. These hypothesized relationships were tested in the one‐path analytic model with a sample of Indonesian high‐school students (n = 356; 46% girls, M age = 16.20 years). The findings showed that security and conformity values positively predicted social‐oriented achievement motive; self‐direction values positively predicted individual‐oriented achievement motive; and hedonism values negatively predicted both achievement motive orientations. Both individual‐oriented and social‐oriented achievement motives positively predicted mastery‐approach and performance‐approach goals. Interestingly, social‐oriented achievement motive also positively predicted mastery‐avoidance and performance‐avoidance goals, which in turn, negatively predicted English and mathematic achievement. There was also some evidence for the direct effects of values on performance‐approach goals and achievement. Taken together, the findings evinced the relevance of achievement goal constructs to Indonesian students and the psychometric properties of the Indonesian version of the Achievement Goals Questionnaire for further use in Indonesia. The study concludes that the meanings of academic motivation and achievement should be seen from a sociocultural perspective relevant to the context in which they are being studied.     

Meta‐Perceptions of the Coach–Athlete Relationship,Achievement Goals,and Intrinsic Motivation Among Sport Participants

This study investigated a motivational sequence hypothesizing relationships between athletes' meta‐perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship, achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation. Participants (N = 194) completed a multi‐sectional questionnaire assessing the targeted variables. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that athletes who viewed their coaches to be more cooperative, committed, and close in their relationships were more likely to endorse a mastery‐approach goal, and less likely to adopt a performance‐avoidance goal. Subsequent findings confirmed the hypothesized positive relationship between a mastery‐approach goal and intrinsic motivation. Finally, a mastery‐approach goal was found to partially mediate the link between athletes' meta‐perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship and intrinsic motivation. The results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical utility.     

Validation of a Chinese achievement goal orientation questionnaire

Background . The mixed findings of previous studies on the nature and effects of performance goals have led to a call for re‐examination of the dichotomous framework of achievement goal orientation theory. While the call for a revised achievement goal orientation theory has received considerable discussion in Western studies, it is not clear whether the revised theory can also be applied in other ethnic and cultural contexts. Aims . Our aim was to validate the Chinese version of Elliot and Church's (1007) Goal Orientation Questionnaire and to initially test the revised goal orientation theory in the context of Chinese students in Hong Kong. Sample . A total of 270 Chinese students (137 boys and 133 girls) from a primary and secondary school in Hong Kong participated in Study 1. Study 2 involved a total of 9,440 students (5,420 boys and 4,020 girls) from 10 primary and 18 secondary schools in Hong Kong. Method . Participants in Study 1 completed a Chinese Goal Orientation Questionnaire (CGOQ) measuring three types of goal orientation. Exploratory factor analysis, item–total correlation, and reliability analyses were undertaken to assess the psychometric quality of the CGOQ. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis was used to provide further validation for the revised questionnaire. The relationships among different goal orientations and that with students' perceived classroom environment and self‐efficacy were also explored using structural equation modelling. Results . Findings of exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 and confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 supported the proposed factor structure of the CGOQ. All the subscales in the questionnaire also showed good internal consistency reliabilities. The construct validity of the CGOQ was supported by its significant relationship with criterion measures. While most of the relationships between the three types of goal orientation and the learning‐related variables measured in our study were consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were different from previous studies. Conclusion . Our findings generally supported the trichotomous framework of the revised goal orientation theory with Chinese students in Hong Kong. Consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, our findings indicated that both mastery and performance‐approach goals had positive impacts on students' learning. However, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were contradictory to the conceptualization of performance‐avoidance goals in the revised theory. Cultural and social factors affecting Hong Kong students' goal orientations are discussed.     

Achievement goals as mediators of the relationship between competence beliefs and test anxiety

Background. Previous work suggests that the expectation of failure is related to higher test anxiety and achievement goals grounded in a fear of failure. Aim. To test the hypothesis, based on the work of Elliot and Pekrun (2007) , that the relationship between perceived competence and test anxiety is mediated by achievement goal orientations. Sample. Self‐report data were collected from 275 students in post‐compulsory education following courses in A Level Psychology. Results. Competence beliefs were inversely related to the worry and tension components of test anxiety, both directly and indirectly through a performance‐avoidance goal orientation. A mastery‐avoidance goal orientation offered an indirect route from competence beliefs to worry only. Conclusion. These findings provide partial support for Elliot and Pekrun's (2007) model. Although significant mediating effects were found for mastery‐avoidance and performance‐avoidance goals, they were small and there may be other mechanisms to account for the relations between competence beliefs and test anxiety.     

Impression management and achievement motivation: Investigating substantive links

In this research, we investigate impression management (IM) as a substantive personality variable by linking it to differentiated achievement motivation constructs, namely achievement motives (workmastery, competitiveness, fear of failure) and achievement goals (mastery‐approach, mastery‐avoidance, performance‐approach, performance‐avoidance). Study 1 revealed that IM was a positive predictor of workmastery and a negative predictor of competitiveness (with and without self‐deceptive enhancement (SDE) controlled). Studies 2a and 2b revealed that IM was a positive predictor of mastery‐approach goals and mastery‐avoidance goals (without and, in Study 2b, with SDE controlled). These findings highlight the value of conceptualising and utilising IM as a personality variable in its own right and shed light on the nature of the achievement motive and achievement goal constructs.     

Cognitive processes in university learning: A developmental framework using structural equation modelling

Background. Both achievement goals and study processing strategies theories have been shown to contribute to the prediction of students’ academic performance. Existing research studies ( Fenollar, Román, & Cuestas, 2007 ; Liem, Lau, & Nie, 2008 ; Simons, Dewitte, & Lens, 2004 ) amalgamating these two theoretical orientations in different causal models have reported their associations with other adaptive strategies and motivational constructs – for example, effort expenditure. Despite this recognition, there have been to date very few studies that explored the relations between achievement goals, study processing strategies, effort, and academic performance over time. Aim of study. The primary focus of our study is to explore the relations between the aforementioned theoretical constructs over a 2‐year period. Specifically, we tested an empirical model that conceptualized the relations between performance‐approach and mastery goals, deep processing strategies, effort, and academic performance across six time points of data collection. Methodology. Two hundred and eighty‐one (161 females, 120 males) university students took part in this study. The participants were administered various Likert‐scale inventories and the overall course mark and final examination were used as indexes of academic performance. Results. Structural equation modelling indicated a relatively good fit to the a posteriori model and the hypothesized paths were, in part, supported. The major findings included the predictive effects of performance‐approach goals at Time 1 on deep processing strategies at Time 2 and mastery goals at Time 3; the predictive effect of mastery goals at Time 3 on effort at Time 4; the predictive effects of deep processing at Time 2 on mastery goals at Time 3 and Time 4. Furthermore, the placement of deep processing and effort in this structural model also accentuated the performance‐approach goals – mastery goals – effort – academic performance relation, and the performance‐approach goals – deep processing – mastery goals – effort – academic performance relation. Discussion. Our study has important theoretical and practical implications concerning the conceptualization of the performance‐approach and mastery goals relationship, and the use of goal structure and adaptive strategies (e.g., deep processing) to enhance academic learning.     

Perceptions of competence,implicit theory of ability,perception of motivational climate,and achievement goals: a test of the trichotomous conceptualization of endorsement of achievement motivation in the physical education setting

To test and extend the conceptualization of the endorsement of achievement goals in the physical education setting Mastery, Performance-approach, and Performance-approach goals, Perception of the physical education competence, Implicit theory about sport ability, and Perception of the motivational climate were assessed among 682 boys attending five French schools. Analysis indicated that (1) Performance-approach goals were positively associated with perception of physical education Competence, Entity beliefs about sport ability, the Performance dimension of the motivational climate, and negatively associated with Incremental beliefs about sport ability. (2) Mastery goals were positively associated with perception of physical education Competence, Incremental beliefs about sport ability, the Mastery dimension of the motivational climate, and negatively associated with the Performance dimension of the motivational climate. Also, (3) Performance-avoidance goals were positively associated with Entity beliefs about sport ability and the Performance dimension of the motivational climate; these goals were negatively associated with Incremental beliefs about sport ability and perception of physical education Competence. These results clearly attested to the validity of the trichotomous model in the physical education setting.     

Performance‐approach and performance‐avoidance classroom goals and the adoption of personal achievement goals

Background. Students’ perceptions of classroom goals influence their adoption of personal goals. To assess different forms of classroom goals, recent studies have favoured an overall measure of performance classroom goals, compared to a two‐dimensional assessment of performance‐approach and performance‐avoidance classroom goals (PAVCG). Aims. This paper considered the relationship between students’ perceptions of classroom goals and their endorsement of personal achievement goals. We proposed that three (instead of only two) classroom goals need to be distinguished. We aimed to provide evidence for this hypothesis by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and also by divergent associations between the respective classroom goal and students’ personal goal endorsement. Sample. A total of 871 (474 female) 10th grade students from several German high schools participated in this study. Method. Students responded to items assessing their perception of mastery, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance goals in the classroom. Additionally, the students reported how much they personally pursue mastery, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance goals. All items referred to German as a specific school subject. Results. A CFA yielded empirical support for the proposed distinction of three (instead of only two) different kinds of classroom goals. Moreover, in hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) analyses all three classroom goals showed unique associations with students’ personal goal adoption. Conclusions. The findings emphasized the need to distinguish performance‐approach and PAVCG. Furthermore, our results suggest that multiple classroom goals have interactive effects on students’ personal achievement strivings.     

Exploring Individual Differences in a Goal‐Setting Situation Using the Motivational Trait Questionnaire1

We examined the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ) in a goal‐setting situation to determine the capability of motivational traits to predict task performance and core variables associated with goal‐setting: self‐efficacy, personal goals, and goal commitment. The MTQ measures individual differences in motivation to perform tasks utilizing 6 underlying scales that reflect the 3 traits of personal mastery, competitive excellence, and motivation related to anxiety. Generally consistent with hypotheses, we found that higher levels of the desire to learn, mastery, other‐referenced goals, competitiveness, and emotionality scales were predictive of personal goals, self‐efficacy, and practice, or postgoal performance of an idea‐generation task. Our findings led us to believe that the MTQ is a reliable and useful way of measuring stable motivational constructs, particularly in a goal‐setting situation.     

The influence of dispositional and situational tendencies on adolescent girls’ sport confidence sources

Objectives: To examine the influence of female athletes’ goal orientations and perceptions of motivational climate on sources of sport confidence. We hypothesized that task orientation and perceptions of mastery climate would be positively associated with adaptive or self-referenced sources of sport confidence. Ego orientation and perceptions of performance climate were expected to be positively associated with maladaptive or normative sources of confidence.Design: A field correlational study design was used to examine the relationships among goal orientations, motivational climate, and sport confidence sources, and to test both mediator and moderator effects of motivational climate on the relationship between goal orientations and sport confidence sources.Method: Participants were 180 competitive female volleyball players aged 12–18 years. Athletes completed three questionnaires assessing goal orientations, perceptions of motivational climate, and sources of sport confidence.Results: Task orientation and perceptions of mastery climate were positively associated with adaptive sources of sport confidence as well as social/environmental sources. Ego orientation was positively associated with maladaptive sources of confidence. Perceptions of mastery climate supported a mediational rather than a moderational role for motivational climate in predicting the social support and coach’s leadership sources of sport confidence.Conclusion: The significant mediating influence of a mastery climate established by the coach provides important implications for coaches who want to build self-confidence in adolescent female athletes.     

Self‐construal and students’ math self‐concept,anxiety and achievement: An examination of achievement goals as mediators

This study examines the role of self‐construal in student learning by testing a mediation model: through math achievement goals, self‐construal predicts math self‐concept and anxiety, which further predict math achievement. A sample of 1196 students from 104 secondary classes in Singapore took a survey and a math achievement test. The results from multi‐group structural equation modelling support measurement invariance and equal path coefficients in the mediation model between boys and girls. Interdependent self‐construal positively predicted mastery approach and avoidance goals, through which interdependent self‐construal had a positive total indirect effect on math anxiety. Independent self‐construal positively predicted mastery approach, performance approach and performance avoidance goals, and through the two approach goals, high independent self‐construal was associated with high math self‐concept. Overall, self‐construal was not associated with math achievement. The findings enhance our understanding of achievement motivation from a sociocultural perspective and help explain East Asian students’ relatively higher anxiety and lower self‐concept in comparison with their Western counterparts as reported in international studies.     

Achievement motives and emotional processes in children during problem-solving: Two experimental studies of their relation to performance in different achievement goal conditions

In two studies, the influence of key emotional and motivational factors on performance in different achievement goal-type situations is examined. In study 1, based on 314 sixth-graders, two types of goal situations were induced; performance and mastery. The goals were examined with respect to important antecedents (e.g., motive dispositions) and several consequences (e.g., performance, satisfaction, pleasant affect, worry, and emotionality). The results showed that the motive to achieve success (M _s) produced positive affects, satisfaction, and increased performance, whereas the motive to avoid failure (M _f) produced worries and performance reduction. In study 2, based on 331 sixth-graders, three types of goal situations were induced; performance–approach, performance–avoidance, and mastery goals. The findings revealed that the most important single factors positively related to performance were M _s and mastery–goal situation. In addition, high M _s pupils performed better under mastery condition than under performance condition. Finally, avoidance-goal situation accentuate the negative effects of high M _f on performance.     

Amalgamation of future time orientation,epistemological beliefs,achievement goals and study strategies: Empirical evidence established

Background Recently research evidence emphasizes two main lines of inquiry, namely the relations between future time perspective (FTP), achievement goals (mastery, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance) and study processing strategies, and the relations between epistemological beliefs, achievement goals and study processing strategies. To date, however, there have been very few attempts made to amalgamate these two strands of inquiry within one study and how they in totality determine the success of academic learning. Aims This study proposed and tested a conceptual model of relationships among FTP, epistemological beliefs, achievement goals (mastery, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance), study processing strategies and academic performance. Sample Two hundred and seventy‐five tertiary second‐year students (167 females, 108 males) enrolled in a university in the Pacific participated in this study. Method Likert‐scale inventories were used to elicit relevant data from students; for example, the epistemological questionnaire (EQ; Schommer, 1990 ) and the Zimbardo time perspective inventory ( Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999 ). Academic performance was collated from students' course and final exam marks in the course educational psychology. LISREL 8.72 and SPSS 15 was used to test and evaluate the conceptual model proposed. Results Latent variables procedures supported the conceptual model in general, although not all hypothesized paths were significant. MANOVA indicated no gender differences in the five theoretical frameworks or academic performance. Discussion The determinants of academic performance from our findings are deep and surface processing strategies. Furthermore, the established supports the mediating roles of deep processing strategies, mastery goals, and performance‐approach and performance‐avoidance goals.     

Comparing dichotomous and trichotomous approaches to achievement goal theory: An example using motivational regulations as outcome variables

Background. It is commonly assumed that there is conceptual equivalence between the task and ego achievement goals proposed by Nicholl's (1989) dichotomous achievement goal theory ( Nicholls, 1989 ), and the mastery and performance approach goals advanced by Elliot's (1997) trichotomous hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Aims. Our study examined whether this conceptual equivalence is reflected in measurement equivalence by examining the factorial structure and predictive validity of two established questionnaires that assess achievement goals based on Nicholl's and Elliot's approaches to achievement motivation. Sample. Greek adolescents (N=336, M age=13.45 years, SD=1.04). Measures. The participants completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire ( Duda & Nicholls, 1992 ), the Approach – Avoidance Achievement Goals Questionnaire ( Elliot & Church, 1997 ) and a Physical Education (PE) version of the Self‐Regulation Questionnaire ( Goudas, Biddle, & Fox, 1994 ). Results. Confirmatory factor analyses of a number of competing models showed that a model with five correlated independent factors had the best fit. This finding suggests that the goals measured by the two achievement goal questionnaires are related, although independent constructs. However, hierarchical regression analyses predicting regulatory styles in PE showed quite a substantial overlap between the mastery and performance approach goals proposed by Elliot (1997) , and the task and ego goals, respectively, advanced by Nicholls (1989) . Conclusions. Taken together, our results indicate that the self‐referenced and comparative 1 goals of the TEOSQ and AAGQ are substantially related, to the extent that they have minimal unique predictive validity; however, they are not identical constructs.     

初中生社会比较在成就目标与学业自我效能感之间的中介效应

采用成就目标定向、社会比较和学业自我效能感三个量表,以724名初中生为被试,对社会比较在成就目标与学业自我效能感之间的中介作用进行了考察。结果表明：（1）除对学习能力自我效能感产生直接影响外,掌握接近目标会通过上行比较、成绩接近目标会通过上行/下行比较间接地影响学习能力自我效能感;（2）掌握接近目标、成绩接近目标和成绩回避目标不仅会对学习行为自我效能感产生直接影响,还会通过下行比较对其产生间接影响。说明成就目标可以通过直接和间接两种不同的方式影响学业自我效能感。     

Motivational climate, achievement goals, perceived sport competence, and involvement in physical activity: structural and mediator models

Students (N=231) were tested on involvement in physical activity, motivational climate, perceived sport competence, and goal orientations. Multiple regression, partial correlation, and LISREL analyses indicated that mastery goal adoption is positively correlated with a mastery climate. Performance-approach goal adoption is positively correlated with a performance climate. Mastery climate, mastery goal, and perceived sport competence are all positively correlated with involvement in physical activity. LISREL analyses supported three mediational hypotheses: (I) the positive correlation between the performance-approach goal and involvement in physical activity is mediated by (high) perceived sport competence, (II) the negative correlation between the performance-avoidance goal and involvement in physical activity is mediated by (low) perceived sport competence, (III) the positive correlation between mastery climate and involvement in physical activity is mediated by (high) mastery goal orientation. An alternative structural model with perceived competence as the last latent construct in the path was also tested.     

How to achieve in elite training centers without burning out? An achievement goal theory perspective

In training centers, the demonstration of high competence is essential and there is considerable emphasis placed on sporting achievement. Athlete burnout can be a consequence of such pressures and expectations. More information is needed regarding the social, environmental and individual differences in achievement-related characteristics which are relevant to the occurrence of burnout in this context.ObjectivesTo examine the relationships among the coach-created climate, perceived competence, achievement goals and burnout in elite adolescent-age athletes.DesignProspective six-month-follow-up.MethodsData were collected from a sample of 309 young French handball players participating in elite training centers. Cluster analysis and structural equation modeling procedures were employed to evaluate the hypotheses.ResultsComprised of differential scores on the dimensions of burnout, four distinct clusters were identified. Athletes in these cluster groups varied in perceptions of the motivational climate, goal orientations, and perceived competence. The structural model regarding the hypothesized relationships between perceived coach climate, perceived competence, achievement goals and athlete burnout, offered good fit to the data.ConclusionsFindings indicated that young talented athletes perceiving an ego-involving climate and emphasizing mastery avoidance goals at the beginning of the season had a higher risk of experiencing burnout symptoms at the season's end. In contrast, players perceiving a high task-involving climate and emphasizing mastery approach goals at the beginning of the season had lower burnout scores when the season concluded. Moreover, players with high feelings of competence, who also report higher scores on performance approach and avoidance goals, higher scores on mastery approach goals and lower scores on mastery avoidance goals, are less likely to experience burnout.