Erroneous Perceptions in Generating Sequences of Random Events1

This paper reports the results of 2 studies that examine the perceptions of individuals attempting to generate random sequences. It was hypothesized that erroneous perceptions dominate probability judgment. The first study demonstrated that subjects verbalized significantly more erroneous than accurate perceptions when generating sequences of random binary events. The second study was designed both to replicate these data and to assess the role of motivation on the frequency of misconceptions. Results showed that the total number of erroneous perceptions again outnumbered accurate perceptions but, motivation did not increase the number of misconceptions. A basic error concerned subjects' inability to consider events as being independent of each other. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed in relation to the psychology of gambling.     

The effect of knowledge of mathematics on gambling behaviours and erroneous perceptions

This study evaluates the effect of knowledge of mathematics as a protective factor against excessive gambling behaviours and erroneous beliefs. Two groups with different levels of knowledge of mathematics were compared as to their perceptions and behaviours before and during a gambling session. A total of 60 participants (30 men, 30 women) completed a questionnaire evaluating how they perceive the notion of chance and participated in two experimental tasks: the production of a random sequence of heads/tails, and a gambling session on a video lottery terminal. The results show that participants with knowledge of mathematics held more erroneous perceptions of gambling before the experiment whereas both groups showed an equal number of erroneous perceptions and behaviours during gambling. The importance of knowledge of mathematics as a protective factor against excessive gambling is questionable. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed with regard to the prevention of excessive gambling.     

Age and overt verbalization in delay-maintenance behavior in children

The influence of overt self-verbalization on the maintenance of self-imposed delay of gratification was investigated in a task in which the child's possession of accumulating candy rewards was made contingent upon the child stopping further accumulation. Preschool girls who verbalized about the goodness of waiting and preschool girls who uttered an irrelevant verbalization waited longer before terminating their delay than did preschool girls who verbalized about the delayed reward or were silent. Second- and third-grade girls who verbalized about the goodness of waiting or who were silent waited longer than girls of the same age who verbalized about the delayed reward.     

An experimental investigation of thought suppression

An experiment investigating the hypothesis that trying to suppress a thought will lead to an immediate and/or delayed increase in its occurrence is reported. Normal subjects listened to a taped story and then verbalized their stream of consciousness during two consecutive time periods. During the first period, one group (suppression) were asked not to think about the tape while two other groups (controls) were asked to think about anything or think about anything including the tape. During the second period, all three groups were instructed to think about anything. Results from the first period failed to support the immediate enhancement hypothesis as the suppression group reported less thoughts about the tape than the controls. However, results from the second period supported the delayed (rebound) hypothesis as subjects who had previously suppressed reported more thoughts about the tape than subjects who had not. The theoretical, methodological, and clinical implications of these results are discussed.     

Couples' Concurrent Cognitions The Influence of Relational Satisfaction on the Thoughts Couples Have as They Converse

Studies of cognition in relationships show that people's thoughts about their partners shape and reflect the quality of relationships. Some research further suggests that women's cognitions are more relationship-centered than men's. The data supporting these arguments, however, often are based on partners' retrospective reports or responses to hypothetical scenarios. This study examined partners' concurrent cognitions—the thoughts they have during the course of interaction. Data were collected using a modification of “protocol analysis.” Partners conversed over networked computers and also voiced what they were thinking. Results indicated that those who were dissatisfied with their relationship expressed significantly more negative thoughts about their partner, fewer positive thoughts about their partner, and fewer positive thoughts about their relationship than did those who were satisfied. Dissatisfied men vocalized fewer negative thoughts about themselves than did those who were satisfied. ‘Women's thoughts were not more focused on relationship-oriented issues than were men's; men expressed more negative cognitions about relationships. The findings confirm that there are distinctions between the concurrent cognitions of satisfied and dissatisfied partners. Researchers should continue questioning the influence of gender on the ways partners evaluate their relationships.     

Group therapy for pathological gamblers: a cognitive approach

This study evaluated the efficacy of a group cognitive treatment for pathological gambling. Gamblers, meeting DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, were randomly assigned to treatment (N=34) or wait-list control (N=24) conditions. Cognitive correction techniques were used first to target gamblers' erroneous perceptions about randomness, and then to address issues of relapse prevention. The dependent measures used were the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, perceived self-efficacy, gamblers' perception of control, desire to gamble, and frequency of gambling. Post-treatment results indicated that 88% of the treated gamblers no longer met the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling compared to only 20% in the control group. Similar changes were observed on all outcome measures. Analysis of data from 6-, 12- and 24-month follow-ups revealed maintenance of therapeutic gains. Recommendations for group interventions are discussed, focusing on the cognitive correction of erroneous perceptions toward the notion of randomness.     

Internet‐based CBT intervention for gamblers in Finland: Experiences from the field

From September 2007 to May 2011 a total of 471 participants (325 males and 146 females) signed up for an 8‐week Internet‐based cognitive behavioral therapy offered for gamblers in Finland. Sixty‐four percent of the participants were pathological gamblers (PGs) (NODS 5> points), 14% were problem gamblers (NODS 3–4 points) and 10% were at risk of gambling problems (NODS 1–2 points). Two hundred and twenty four participants completed the treatment and after the treatment period significant changes were found in the following variables: gambling related problems (NODS), gambling urge, impaired control of gambling, alcohol consumption (AUDIT‐C), social consequences, gambling‐related cognitive erroneous thoughts and depression (MARD‐S). In this sample co‐morbid alcohol consumption was stronger among males. The main finding of this study was that the onset age of gambling was associated with a greater amount of gambling‐related cognitive erroneous thoughts.     

Responsible gambling tools: pop-up messages and pauses on video lottery terminals

The authors examined the effect of messages and pauses, presented on video lottery terminal screens, on erroneous beliefs and persistence to play. At posttest, the strength of erroneous beliefs was lower for participants who received messages conveying information about randomness in gambling as compared to those who received pauses. Pauses also diminished the strength of erroneous beliefs, and there was no difference between the effects of pauses and messages on the number of games played. The authors discuss these results in terms of the use of messages and pauses on video lottery terminals as a strategy for promoting responsible gambling.     

Responsible Gambling Tools: Pop-Up Messages and Pauses on Video Lottery Terminals

The authors examined the effect of messages and pauses, presented on video lottery terminal screens, on erroneous beliefs and persistence to play. At posttest, the strength of erroneous beliefs was lower for participants who received messages conveying information about randomness in gambling as compared to those who received pauses. Pauses also diminished the strength of erroneous beliefs, and there was no difference between the effects of pauses and messages on the number of games played. The authors discuss these results in terms of the use of messages and pauses on video lottery terminals as a strategy for promoting responsible gambling.     

The role of a positive model,a frustrating situation and aggressive context on imitation

Thirty-two groups of four naive Ss and one accomplice participated in this 2 × 2 × 2 experiment designed to test conditions facilitating imitation of a competent model played by the accomplice. It was assumed that the psychological distance between the competent model and the Ss would be lessened so that imitation would increase: 1. if the model was friendly rather than hostile, 2. if the situation was non-frustrating rather than frustrating, and 3. if aggression was permitted rather than forbidden. Imitation was measured by the Ss' reproduction of the model's two mannerisms, and was found to be significantly influenced in the predicted way by the three variables. However, the freedom to aggress did not lessen psychological distance. Alternative explanations are provided for these results.     

An investigation of the arousal model of interpersonal intimacy

In a study designed to test Patterson's arousal model of nonverbal intimacy, the heartrate, gaze, smiles, body orientation, and body lean of each of 40 female subjects who interacted with an accomplice were measured. Within a factorial design, subjects were induced to view more or less favorably the accomplice, who subsequently increased or maintained the same level of nonverbal immediacy as she did in an earlier session. It was hypothesized that (1) an increase in the accomplice's immediacy would effect an increase in subjects' arousal (heartrate) which, in turn, (2) would lead to either reciprocal or compensatory nonverbal adjustments by subjects, depending on whether they viewed the accomplice more or less favorably, respectively. The results supported the first but not the second hypothesis. However, interpretation of the results suggests, nevertheless, that they may be consistent with the arousal model.     

Effects of Concurrent Verbalization on a Time-Critical,Dynamic Decision-Making Task

The authors investigated the effects of concurrent verbalization on students' performance on a time-critical, dynamic decision-making task. After training on Fire Chief (a computer microworld that simulates fighting a forest fire; M. M. Omodei & A. J. Wearing, 1993a), 60 research participants were allocated randomly to 1 of 3 experimental conditions: silence, associative verbalization, or procedural verbalization. Participants who verbalized the bases of their decisions (procedural verbalization) performed significantly worse on average than participants in the silence condition. There was a small but nonsignificant decrement in the performance of participants who verbalized thoughts other than the bases of their decisions while performing the task (associative verbalization). Their average level was between the levels of participants in the silence and procedural-verbalization conditions.     

When being far away is good: Exploring how mortality salience,regulatory mode,and goal progress affect judgments of meaning in life

Research indicates that death‐relevant thoughts (mortality salience) have a nuanced effect on judgments of life's meaningfulness. Thoughts of death diminish meaning in life only among people who lack or do not readily engage psychological structures that confer meaning. Building on this past research, the current research examined how an important source of meaning, long‐term goal progress, affects the ways that death‐relevant cognitions impact judgments of life's meaning. In Study 1 (N = 118), mortality salience decreased perceptions of meaning in life only among participants who were induced to feel closer to (vs. farther from) completing a long‐term goal. Study 2 (N = 259) extended these findings by demonstrating the moderating influence of individual differences in locomotion. Mortality salience again decreased perceptions of meaning in life among participants who felt closer to accomplishing a long‐term goal, but it only did so among people who do not quickly adopt new goals to pursue (i.e., those low in locomotion). The implications of these findings for better understanding how people maintain meaning in the face of existential concerns and how aspects of goal pursuit affect these processes are discussed.     

Effects of Supervisor Style and Empathy on Counselor Perceptions in Simulated Counseling

Effects of supervisor style (techniques type and counseling type) and supervisor empathy upon counselor perceptions in a supervision analogue were examined. Three groups of 14 students heard two sets of recorded client statements and responded as counselors. The two experimental (E) groups had 20-minute conferences with supervisors between the first and second sets. Controls (C) received no supervision. Counselor perceptions were measured by questionnaire responses. Although subjects supervised by an emphasis on techniques rated themselves less relaxed and less confident about the meaning of empathy than those with an emphasis on counseling, their performance on the criterion of empathy was higher. Both E groups perceived themselves as higher than C's in amount learned, but they were no higher on the performance measure. No differences were found for reactions to supervision (items given E's only) or reactions to participation in the experiment. Empathy of supervisors did not appreciably affect counselor perceptions.     

Structured writing about current stressors: The benefits of developing plans

To investigate the health outcomes of structured writing about everyday stressors, 64 undergraduates selected a stressful event with which they were currently dealing, and wrote about it at home on three occasions in 1 week. Two forms of writing were manipulated: expressive writing?–?exploring one's thoughts and feelings about the stressor; and planful writing?–?developing plans to deal with the problem. Appraisals of control and efficacy were investigated as mediators. Expressive writing yielded no health benefits and did not affect appraisals, but planful writing did. Whereas non-planners' levels of negative affect (NA) remained stable across writing days, planners initially experienced higher NA, but their NA decreased significantly across writing days. Planful writers, relative to non-planners, felt less control over their emotions and less confidence in resolving their problem, but it was non-planners who experienced an increase in stress-related symptoms following writing. Appraisals did not mediate the physical health outcomes.     

“Scatter Analysis” Techniques Applied to Anxiety Neurotics from a Restricted Culturo-Educational Environment

Hearing-impaired children were individually administered a task in which possession of accumulating candy rewards was made contingent upon the child's decision to stop any further accumulation of the candy. Hearing-impaired children, who under instruction periodically made American Sign Language (ASL) statements about the goodness of the reward, waited significantly longer before terminating the waiting period than did hearing-impaired children instructed to sign statements about the act of waiting and somewhat longer than did hearing-impaired children instructed to sign a neutral statement. Since the pattern of delay was unlike that reported in earlier investigations when nonhandicapped children verbalized similar statements and since variation in mode of communication did not influence delay in nonhandicapped children in the present investigation, the results were interpreted in terms of differences in cognitive controlling mechanisms between nonhandicapped and hearing-impaired children.     

Looking as a Measure of Attraction1

Byrne's reinforcement theory of attraction is almost exclusively based upon studies that use the Interpersonal Judgment Scale (IJS) as their measure of attraction. The present study used Byrne's general experimental procedure but employed an unobtrusive “looking” measure of attraction as well as the more familiar IJS measure. The degree of attitude similarity between women subjects and a female stranger was not significantly related to the IJS measure of attraction but was significantly related to the proportion of looking time measure (p < .01). This was true for both subjects who verbalized and did not verbalize awareness of the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent measures of the study.     

Rebound effects following deliberate thought suppression: does PTSD make a difference?

This study was designed to examine the effects of deliberate suppression of trauma-related thoughts in 44 individuals who were PTSD+ and 26 individuals who were PTSD- following a motor vehicle accident (MVA). In an effort to resolve discrepancies in the literature, the PTSD- group was selected from the same help-seeking population as the patient group. Measures included the percentage of MVA-related thoughts, mood, perceived controllability of thoughts, and physiological arousal (heart rate, skin conductance, and two measures of facial EMG). Contrary to hypothesis, both PTSD+ and PTSD- groups showed a rebound in trauma-related thoughts following deliberate thought suppression. This rebound was associated with increases in negative affect, anxiety, and distress and diminished perceptions of controllability over thoughts. Examination of the physiological measures did not mirror the pattern noted for trauma-related thoughts, although the data suggest that suppression was associated with higher levels of frontalis EMG and possibly, reduced heart rate. The current study indicates that help-seeking individuals who are distressed about their psychological state following a serious MVA will show a rebound in MVA-related thoughts, irrespective of PTSD diagnosis. Implications for the study of thought suppression as a potential maintaining factor for trauma-related problems are discussed, with suggestions for future research.     

Complexity effects on the children's gambling task

The children's gambling task (CGT [Kerr, A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2004). Development of “Hot” executive function: The children's gambling task. Brain and Cognition, 55, 148–157]) involves integrating information about losses and gains to maximize winnings when selecting cards from two decks. Both cognitive complexity and control (CCC) theory and relational complexity (RC) theory attribute younger children's difficulty to task complexity. In CCC theory, identification of the advantageous deck requires formulation of a higher-order rule so that gains and losses can be considered in contradistinction. According to RC theory, it entails processing the ternary relation linking three variables (deck, magnitude of gain, magnitude of loss). We designed two less complex binary-relational versions in which either loss or gain varied across decks, with the other held constant. The three closely matched versions were administered to 3–5-year-olds. Consistent with complexity explanations, children in all age groups selected cards from the advantageous deck in the binary-relational versions, but only 5-year-olds did so on the ternary-relational CGT.     

Studying the effects of self-talk on thought content with male adult tennis players

The current study examined the effects of self-talk on thought content during a tennis forehand crosscourt exercise. 16 adult tennis players (M age = 37.3 yr., SD = 8.31) were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. After completing three baseline assessments, the players of the intervention group developed and implemented self-determined instructional cue words throughout three intervention trials. The participants' thought content was divided into three categories, and repeated-measures analyses of variance indicated a significant group by time interaction for execution-related thoughts and outcome-related thoughts, but not for circumstance-related thoughts. Follow-up comparisons showed that the experimental group players' execution-related thoughts increased and outcome-related thoughts decreased significantly, whereas thought content did not change significantly in the control group. The results of this study provided evidence for the effects of self-talk on players' thought content and supported the idea that self-talk could help athletes to focus on task relevant information.