Sex characteristics,task clarity,and authority

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of sexual stereotyping on the exercise of authority. The hypotheses were that the sexual composition of the group affects the authority behavior of group leaders when the task has low clarity but that sex characteristics have no effect on authority behavior when the task has high clarity. These predictions were expected to hold both in situations where there is a direct association between sex and the task ability and in situations where no such connection is established. As predicted, no significant difference was found in the number of high control acts made by male and female leaders in the high task clarity conditions, even when sex was directly related to the task ability. Also as hypothesized, sex effects did operate strongly in the low task clarity conditions. Male leaders made significantly more high control acts than female leaders, even in conditions where no prior relation was established between sex and the task ability. Thus, these results indicate that the effect of sex characteristics on the exercise of authority is enhanced in low task clarity situations and is neutralized in high task clarity situations.A preliminary version of this paaper was presented at the West Coast Conference for Small Group Research, San Francisco, California, April 24, 1974. We would like to acknowledge the comments made by Anne McMahon and Mary Walshok and the research assistance provided by Sue Aldrich, Patti Baird, Jim Hart, Debbie Jones, Glenn Kassel, Jane Morrison, Karen Scheblein, and Kay Smith.     

Shattering the illusion of control: Multi-shot versus single-shot gambles

The illusion of control refers to a phenomenon whereby people believe their chances of success at a task are greater than would be warranted by objective analysis. This article raises two questions. First, how robust is the illusion of control? Second, how might the illusion be ‘shattered?’ Previous experimental demonstrations involved situations that can be likened to unique or single-shot gambles. If, however, the phenomenon is robust, it should occur in repeated or multi-shot gambles in which the outcome depends on a series of gambles involving the same underlying random process. It should also appear in single-shot gambles that are framed so as to superficially resemble multi-shot gambles. We label this the strong illusion of control hypothesis. On the other hand, because people have a better appreciation of probabilistic concepts in tasks they are able to represent as relative frequencies, the introduction of a multi-shot or ‘pseudo-multi-shot’ context might cue people to the random nature of the task, thereby shattering the illusion. The weak illusion of control hypothesis holds that the illusion of control will occur in single-shot but not in multi-shot or pseudo-multi-shot gambles. Two studies are reported that support the weak hypothesis. Alternative explanations are considered and implications are discussed.     

Subjective Screening of Stuttering severity, locus of control and avoidance: research edition

This article describes the Subjective Screening of Stuttering (SSS): research edition that is designed to quantify the selected self-reports of people who stutter (PWS) prior to, during, and following their treatment. The three areas screened by the SSS are perceived stuttering severity, the level of internal or external locus of control, and reported word or situation avoidance. Each of the areas has two or three items rated for three audiences on a one to nine rating scale. Other available measures were reviewed and the need for a single instrument that provides quantified screening of each of the areas was recognized. Results of a research project using the SSS with 16 PWS indicated that percent of syllables stuttered correlated with stuttering severity (r=0.75) and with locus of control (r=0.43) but did not correlate with avoidance. These results were interpreted to indicate a need for other types of therapy following the experimental treatment studied. Reliability and validity of the SSS were judged adequate for research and clinical screening. The possible role of screening self-reports of PWS in combination with more extensive self-report instruments and with objective measures of stuttering is discussed. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will be able to (1) assess the perception of stuttering severity, avoidance and locus of control of people who stutter (PWS), and (2) determine from the PWS the self-reported outcome of treatment.     

Primary, secondary, and emotional control across adulthood

Schulz and Heckhausen (1996) have recently formulated a theory of successful aging that centers on perceptions of control as a major theme in the developmental process. They suggest primary control is a universal phenomenon and that people will strive for primary control over secondary control. Secondary control mechanisms, on the other hand, may serve to mediate losses in primary control. This study evaluates the relationship between primary and secondary control among 327 men and women, by administering a general sense of control scale and an emotion control measure with four sub-scales. Consistent with previous research, both age and gender differences were found in primary and secondary control. The results of this study provide support for the theory of emotional selectivity which postulates that as people age they are more able to regulate their emotions, thereby directing energies at increasing secondary control mechanisms (Carstensen, 1986).     

Cognitive control deployment is flexibly modulated by social value in early adolescence

Recent mechanistic models of cognitive control define the normative level of control deployment as a function of the effort cost of exerting control balanced against the reward that can be attained by exerting control. Despite these models explaining empirical findings in adults, prior literature has suggested that adolescents may not adaptively integrate value into estimates of how much cognitive control they should deploy. Moreover, much work in adolescent neurodevelopment casts social valuation processes as competing with, and in many cases overwhelming, cognitive control in adolescence. Here, we test whether social incentives can adaptively increase cognitive control. Adolescents (M_age = 14.64, 44 male, N = 87) completed an incentivized cognitive control task in which they could exert cognitive control to receive rewards on behalf of real peers who were rated by all peers in their school grade as being of either high- or low-status. Using Bayesian modeling, we find robust evidence that adolescents exert more cognitive control for high- relative to low-status peers. Moreover, we demonstrate that social incentives, irrespective of their high- or low-status, boost adolescent cognitive control above baseline control where no incentives are offered. Findings support the hypothesis that the cognitive control system in early adolescence is flexibly modulated by social value.     

Primary, secondary, and emotional control across adulthood

Schulz and Heckhausen (1996) have recently formulated a theory of successful aging that centers on perceptions of control as a major theme in the developmental process. They suggest primary control is a universal phenomenon and that people will strive for primary control over secondary control. Secondary control mechanisms, on the other hand, may serve to mediate losses in primary control. This study evaluates the relationship between primary and secondary control among 327 men and women, by administering a general sense of control scale and an emotion control measure with four sub-scales. Consistent with previous research, both age and gender differences were found in primary and secondary control. The results of this study provide support for the theory of emotional selectivity which postulates that as people age they are more able to regulate their emotions, thereby directing energies at increasing secondary control mechanisms (Carstensen, 1986).     

Myopic biases in strategic social prediction: why deadlines put everyone under more pressure than everyone else

Five experiments document biases in the way people predict the outcomes of interdependent social situations. Participants predicted that situational constraints would restrain their own behavior more than it would the behavior of others, even in situations where everyone faced identical constraints. When anticipating the effects of deadlines on outcomes of negotiations, participants predicted that deadlines would hinder their performance more than it would hinder the performance of others. The results shed light on the psychological processes by which people predict the outcomes of and select strategies in strategic social interaction. They extend prior findings, such as people believing themselves to be below average on difficult tasks, to highly interdependent situations. Furthermore, the article shows both how focusing can account for these effects and also how perspective taking can reduce their biasing influence.     

Individualism/Collectivism and Cultures of Happiness: A Theoretical Conjecture on the Relationship between Consumption, Culture and Subjective Well-Being at the National Level

This theory paper seeks to explain an empirical puzzle presented by past research on the relationship between consumption and subjective well-being (SWB). Research has shown that people in rich countries are, on average, significantly higher in SWB than people in poor countries, which is consistent with a strong link between one's overall level of consumption and one's SWB. However, when individuals within the same country are compared, income has little relationship to SWB above the level at which basic needs can be met, suggesting that higher levels of consumption may not be linked to higher levels of SWB. This link between consumption and SWB when nations are compared to each other, but not when individuals within a given nation are compared to each other, presents a puzzle. As a solution, I propose that economic development leads to higher levels of national average SWB not by increasing consumption (again, with the caveat that this statement excludes situations where basic needs are not being met), but by creating more individualistic cultures which encourage their members to pursue personal happiness over honor and meeting social obligations. Whether or not this is seen as a socially positive development depends in a circular fashion on the cultural values of the person making the judgement.     

Sales management control systems: review,synthesis, and directions for future exploration

Sales management control systems (SMCSs) are designed to align salespeople's activities and actions with organizational objectives. This article reviews and synthesizes over 50 SMCS articles published in sales, marketing, and management journals over the past 30 years. We begin by building a comprehensive framework that enables us to classify prior research into digestible categories (e.g., SMCSs as antecedents, SMCSs as consequences). Next, we present an analysis of gaps in the literature. Among other findings, our analysis reveals that there is an overwhelming focus on the use of formal (specifically behavior- and outcome-based) controls as compared to their informal control counterparts. Finally, we suggest avenues for future research: (1) mapping and understanding the full spectrum of control mechanisms, (2) developing a fuller understanding of the often-overlooked forms of control (e.g., input and cultural controls), and (3) more thoroughly analyzing how controls operate (or do not operate) as an integrated system.     

Identity Construction,Self Perceptions,and Criminal Behavior of Incarcerated Women

Using symbolic interactionism and labeling as theoretical frameworks, identity status formation has been studied primarily with students in school environments, and very little is known about how people in other situations perceive themselves. This research examined how 104 young women convicted of felony offenses viewed their personal and social identities, and explored whether previous criminal behavior predicted how women saw themselves at this point in their lives. Having a prior conviction and being involved in drug use and sales predicted the likelihood that women would see themselves as criminals, but property crime did not. Implications of the findings were discussed.     

突发公共事件中公众的补偿性控制

补偿性控制理论指出,当面临控制感的缺乏时,个体会表现出一种需求秩序的倾向,即努力寻求客观世界的秩序,对于具有秩序性、确定性、可预测性的物理或抽象事物表现出偏好与需求,这种表现被称为补偿性控制。基于突发公共事件常会引发人们控制感暂时的下降,补偿性控制理论的视角可以用来解释个体在突发公共事件中的一系列典型心理反应。如阴谋论信念、谣言传播、道德争论和非理性囤积,都可以从补偿性控制与秩序需求的角度来加以理解。未来研究可以更多考虑从补偿性控制的角度探讨突发公共事件中的公众心理反应,并基于此视角加强理论深化、研究细化和实践干预。     

Emotion and control in the planning of goals

By planning the what, where, and when of pursuing a goal, people improve the likelihood that they will ultimately attain that goal. Whereas research to date has explored the breadth of this planning effect and its underlying processes, contextual variables that influence the formation and execution of plans have mostly gone unexplored. In light of the central role played by emotional experience in goal pursuit, its impact on planning remains an open question of both theoretical and practical importance. Here, we suggest that anger and sadness—and their corresponding, distinct cognitive appraisal patterns regarding control—differentially impact (1) the tendency to plan and (2) the implementation of plans. Anger (greater control) led to the formation of more plans for goal-directed behavior (Studies 1 and 2) and faster execution of real behavior as prescribed by predetermined plans (Study 3). Broader implications for theories of emotion and goal pursuit are discussed.     

仪式动作、象征意义和积极情绪增强控制感：双路径机制

以中国普米族人的传统文化仪式“敬锅庄”为例, 采用回忆任务、创设新颖仪式等方法考察仪式动作、象征意义和积极情绪对普米族青少年及成人的控制感的影响。结果表明, 熟悉敬锅庄仪式的动作、象征意义或者具有更多情感体验的青少年的控制感更强。仪式动作与象征意义对控制感的影响存在双路径机制：仪式动作直接增强个体的控制感, 象征意义通过积极情绪间接增强个体的控制感。象征意义与控制感的关系还因仪式主体不同有所区别：祈求庇佑通过积极情绪间接增强青少年的控制感, 表达感恩通过积极情绪间接增强成年人的控制感。研究结果对探究仪式动作、象征意义和积极情绪对个体控制感的影响有重要启示。     

Desired control and felt control as mediators of stress in a dental setting

Control-related variables have clearly affected stress responses in previous research (Thompson, 1981). Prior work, however, has primarily emphasized the amount of control that subjects perceive they have. In the three studies reported here, we examined the added predictive utility of assessing subjects' desire for control. Data from all three studies indicate that subjects who have a high desire for control coupled with a low feeling of control are characterized by particularly high degrees of dental distress. These results were found both in settings where patients anticipated immediate dental treatment and where treatment was not imminent. In addition, the results indicate that this "at risk" group reported greater distress before and immediately after actual dental treatment. Furthermore, they remembered their dental treatment as being more aversive 1 week after treatment. The practical implications and theoretical significance of these data are considered.     

双避冲突情境中情绪对言语交际策略的影响

研究随机抽取了113名本科生,考察了情绪和冲突程度对言语交际推诿程度的影响。结果表明：1）情绪对言语推诿程度有显著影响,在积极情绪状态下个体言语推诿程度显著的低于消极情绪状态下个体的言语推诿;2）冲突程度对言语推诿程度影响差异不显著,情绪和冲突程度的交互作用对言语推诿程度的影响显著。冲突程度增强了情绪对言语推诿程度的影响。     

Adolescent risk-taking is predicted by individual differences in cognitive control over emotional,but not non-emotional,response conflict

While much research on adolescent risk behaviour has focused on the development of prefrontal self-regulatory mechanisms, prior studies have elicited mixed evidence of a relationship between individual differences in the capacity for self-regulation and individual differences in risk taking. To explain these inconsistent findings, it has been suggested that the capacity for self-regulation may be, for most adolescents, adequately mature to produce adaptive behaviour in non-affective, “cold” circumstances, but that adolescents have a more difficult time exerting control in affective, “hot” contexts. To further explore this claim, the present study examined individual differences in self-control in the face of affective and non-affective response conflict, and examined whether differences in the functioning of cognitive control processes under these different conditions was related to risk taking. Participants completed a cognitive Stroop task, an emotional Stroop task, and a risky driving task known as the Stoplight game. Regression analyses showed that performance on the emotional Stroop task predicted laboratory risk-taking in the driving task, whereas performance on the cognitive Stroop task did not exhibit the same trend. This pattern of results is consistent with theories of adolescent risk-taking that emphasise the impacts of affective contextual influences on the ability to enact effective cognitive control.     

决策中社会价值取向的理论与测评方法

传统经济学决策理论强调利己性假设, 认为个体是理性的并由个人利益所驱动的。但是, 个体在相依情境中的社会动机要比利己性假设更为复杂, 具有较大的个体差异。社会价值取向是指个体在相依情境中对自己收益和他人收益分配的特定偏好, 是一个用来描述个体对他人利益关注程度的个体差异的概念。本文回顾了测量社会价值取向的三优势测量、环形测验和滑块测验等方法, 强调了不同测评方法的优点与不足, 并简要总结了决策、社会认知、共情、亲社会行为等领域内相关的社会价值取向研究。未来的研究则需要探索社会价值取向与不同社会因素的交互作用, 以及不同社会价值取向个体的神经机制等方面的研究。     

Context-specific adjustment of cognitive control: Transfer of adaptive control sets

Cognitive control protects processing of relevant information from interference by irrelevant information. The level of this processing selectivity can be flexibly adjusted to different control demands (e.g., frequency of conflict) associated with a certain context, leading to the formation of specific context–control associations. In the present study we investigated the robustness and transferability of the acquired context–control demands to new situations. In three experiments, we used a version of the context-specific proportion congruence (CSPC) paradigm, in which each context (e.g., location) is associated with a specific conflict frequency, determining high and low control demands. In a learning phase, associations between context and control demands were established. In a subsequent transfer block, stimulus–response mappings, whole task sets, or context–control demands changed. Results showed an impressive robustness of context–control associations, as context-specific adjustments of control from the learning phase were virtually unaffected by new stimuli and tasks in the transfer block. Only a change of the context–control demand eliminated the context-specific adjustment of control. These findings suggest that context–control associations that have proven to be adaptive in the past are continuously applied despite major changes in the task structure as long as the context–control associations remain the same.     

Optimism,perceived control over stress,and coping

To examine the ability of the expectancy-based personality dimensions dispositional optimism and perceived control over stress to predict the ways in which people characteristically attempt to cope with stress, 420 undergraduate students completed the Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier and Carver, 1985), a measure of perceived control over stress, and the dispositional version of the COPE Inventory (Carver, Scheier and Weintraub, 1989). The results revealed a modest but reliable positive correlation between optimism and the perceived control measure. Principal-components analysis of the COPE revealed a factor structure which was generally in accord with prior research. Optimism was positively correlated with active coping and positive reinterpretation, and negatively correlated with focusing on and venting of emotion. Perceived control over stress was negatively correlated with behavioural disengagement. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Implementation intentions as goal primes: Boosting self‐control in tempting environments

People often forget their long‐term strivings because their environment confronts them with attractive temptations. Previous research suggests that self‐control failures can be prevented by reminding people of their higher‐order goal. Therefore, we hypothesized that using implementation intentions as a tool to directly re‐activate people's higher‐order goal in tempting situations would effectively enhance self‐control. We tested this in the domain of dieting behavior. Results demonstrated that this specific planning strategy activated the dieting goal for unsuccessful dieters when exposed to tempting food cues (Study 1) and reduced their consumption of calorically dense food across 2 weeks (Study 2) compared to those in control conditions. This suggests that preparing people to think of their higher‐order goal when tempted can be used to protect ongoing goal striving. Appealing to higher‐order goals potentially makes implementation intentions flexible instruments of self‐regulation as this should trigger motivated behavior to reach goals and initiate various goal‐instrumental actions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.