British men's hair color preferences: an assessment of courtship solicitation and stimulus ratings

Two studies examined the influence of women's hair color on approach behavior by British men and on ratings of physical attractiveness and personality. In Study 1, a female confederate whose hair color was dyed blonde, brunette, or red was instructed to sit in several nightclubs. It was found that she was approached significantly more frequently by men in the blonde condition. In Study 2, images of the same confederate were rated by 126 men. Results showed that the brunette stimulus was rated as more physically attractive, intelligent, approachable, competent, and arrogant, whereas the blonde stimulus was rated as more needy. These results are discussed in relation to the literature on hair color and attractiveness, but also in terms of women's own perceptions of their hair color.     

A Critical Test of the Waist-to-Hip Ratio Hypothesis of Women's Physical Attractiveness in Britain and Greece

Body mass index (BMI) and body shape as measured by the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) have been reported to be the major cues to women's bodily attractiveness. The relative importance of each of these cues was examined cross-culturally in two distinct countries, Greece and Britain. Fifty Britons, 25 British-Greeks, and 25 participants in Greece were asked to rate a set of images of real women with known BMI and WHR. The results showed that, regardless of the cultural setting, BMI is the primary determinant of women's physical attractiveness, whereas WHR emerged as a significant predictor for the Greek groups but not the British group. This finding is discussed in terms of the different gender roles occupied by Britons and Greeks. The discussion critically evaluates evolutionary psychological and sociocultural explanations of preferences for body weight.     

Skull size and intelligence, and King Robert Bruce's IQ

An estimate of someone's IQ is a potentially informative personal datum. This study examines the association between external skull measurements and IQ scores, and uses the resulting regression equation to provide an estimate of the IQ of King Robert I of Scotland (Robert Bruce, 1274–1329). Participants were 48 relatively healthy Caucasian men (age 71–76 years) resident in Scotland. Using magnetic resonance imaging data, intracranial volume estimated from external skull length and width correlated greater than .5 (p < .001) with measured intracranial area, which correlates very highly with brain volume. IQ scores estimated from the National Adult Reading Test (NART) correlated .56 (p < .001) with measured intracranial area, and .49 (p < .01) with estimated intracranial volume based on external skull width and length. The partial correlation coefficient of this latter association was .25 (p = .09) after adjustment for measured intracranial area. Thus, actual intracranial area accounts for about 74% of the variance shared by NART and estimated intracranial volume. A cast of the skull of Robert Bruce was measured and its intracranial volume estimated. A regression equation between IQ and estimated intracranial volume, based on data from the 48 subjects, estimated the IQ of Robert Bruce at about 128 (95% confidence interval 106 to  130), i.e. almost two standard deviations above the mean. NART scores show a ceiling effect, so this estimated IQ might be an underestimate. Robert Bruce's estimated high IQ is congruent with his military, political and other intellectual achievements.     

An effect size measure and Bayesian analysis of single-case designs

This article describes a linear modeling approach for the analysis of single-case designs (SCDs). Effect size measures in SCDs have been defined and studied for the situation where there is a level change without a time trend. However, when there are level and trend changes, effect size measures are either defined in terms of changes in R² or defined separately for changes in slopes and intercept coefficients. We propose an alternate effect size measure that takes into account changes in slopes and intercepts in the presence of serial dependence and provides an integrated procedure for the analysis of SCDs through estimation and inference based directly on the effect size measure. A Bayesian procedure is described to analyze the data and draw inferences in SCDs. A multilevel model that is appropriate when several subjects are available is integrated into the Bayesian procedure to provide a standardized effect size measure comparable to effect size measures in a between-subjects design. The applicability of the Bayesian approach for the analysis of SCDs is demonstrated through an example.     

Vertex interactions and film shapes in two-dimensional foam

A model of the structure of two-dimensional foam (cells separated by circular arcs (films) meeting at threefold vertices) is considered. Films that are so curved as to be nearly semicircular arcs are problematic for conventional foam structure computations, which aim to identify the pressures needed to achieve specified bubble areas. When the films have near semicircularity, tiny variations in pressure can lead to large changes in the computed bubble area, and hence a failure to meet the specified targets. A new algorithm for determining foam structure is presented. It is based on 'freezing' most of the system, except the nearly semicircular arcs, and then finding the particular bubble pressures associated with the latter via an analytic approximation. This procedure is shown to work well for structure relaxation in a small bubble cluster. Large relaxed bubble clusters are considered briefly at the end of the paper.     

Sample size requirements for estimating pearson, kendall and spearman correlations

Interval estimates of the Pearson, Kendall tau-a and Spearman correlations are reviewed and an improved standard error for the Spearman correlation is proposed. The sample size required to yield a confidence interval having the desired width is examined. A two-stage approximation to the sample size requirement is shown to give accurate results.     

Single and double alternation learning in rats: The role of set size and correction

In many experiments, rats have evidenced extreme difficulty mastering alternation patterns. In three experiments, we explored rats’ ability to learn double alternation patterns and possible reasons behind their past difficulties with such patterns. In Experiment 1, rats learned single and double alternation patterns. In the second and third experiment, we explored the role of correction and interference from stimulus set size on rats’ learning of double alternation patterns. Our results showed that rats easily learned both single and double alternation patterns and that stimulus set size had no noticeable effect on learning double alternation patterns. Findings additionally evidenced that correction played an important role in rats’ learning double alternation patterns.     

Set size,assertion form,thematic content and sampling in the selection task

Participants attempted to solve a modified version of Wason's (1966) selection task. Variables were: (1) sizes of the sets referenced by a specified assertion, (2) form of the assertion (conditional or categorical), (3) thematic content of the assertion (letters and numbers or makes and owners of taxicabs), and (4) the need for sampling or not. In Experiment 1, participants were given enough information to determine the truth or falsity of the specified assertion with certainty; in Experiment 2, they had to rely on sampling and could not determine the assertion's truth or falsity with certainty. Performance was better in Experiment 1 than in Experiment 2, but in both cases much better than what is typically obtained with the conventional selection task. The results support the hypothesis that performance of the selection task is sensitive to the sizes of the sets involved, add credence to the conclusion that framing the task in a thematically meaningful way can facilitate performance, and demonstrate that facilitation does not require deontic reasoning or a well-known convention being involved. The relationship between expressed confidence and level of performance is consistent with other studies showing the former to be a good predictor of the latter.     

Mueller-Lyer illusion and size estimation performance in schizophrenics compared to normal controls

A size estimation (SE) paradigm and the Mueller-Lyer (ML) illusion were used to examine perceptual disturbances in schizophrenics. 35 reliably diagnosed (DSM III-R) schizophrenics were compared to 20 subjects with no history of psychiatric illness. Perceptual distortions found in previous studies of schizophrenics were only to a certain extent confirmed in the present results. More overestimators were found among the schizophrenics than among the normals on the SE task. The schizophrenics, first of all the chronic patients, also proved to be more prone to the Mueller-Lyer illusion. A reason why the very clear differences between schizophrenics and normals found in previous examinations were not confirmed in the present study, might be that a reliable diagnostic instrument was for the first time used in this kind of study.     

Ten- and twelve-month-olds' visual anticipation of orientation and size during grasping

The anticipation of two object dimensions during grasping was investigated in 10- and 12-month-olds. We presented objects varying in both orientation and size and analyzed infants’ anticipatory hand configurations. We found in Experiment 1 that nearly all of the 12-month-olds (94%), but less than half of the 10-month-olds (40%), anticipated both dimensions before touching the object. Experiment 2 ruled out the possibility that this behavior resulted from the infants’ inability to anticipate the size of the stimuli. Thus, integrating two object dimensions during reaching seems to be difficult for 10-month-olds. In addition, we found a sequential adjustment when two dimensions were considered: Infants first adjusted the orientation and then the size. The implications of our findings concerning the planning and execution of grasping movements are discussed.     

Body image and size perceptions of Mexican American women

Purpose was to examine in Mexican American women the influences of age, weight, socioeconomic status and acculturation level on body image, perceptions of attractive and acceptable female shapes, and tolerance for overweight and obesity. Participants were 276 Mexican American women. Age, body mass index, socioeconomic status, and acculturation level were measured. The Figure Rating Scale was used to assess body image, preferences for body size, and perceptions of underweight to obese and acceptable body sizes. Significant effects for acculturation level and current weight were found. Women who were more Anglo oriented showed greater preference for thinner figures. As compared to normal weight women, obese women chose larger figures as ideal, realistic, attractive, and thinnest acceptable. Findings point to the impact of acculturation and obesity on body image and size perceptions. Health professionals working with Mexican Americans should consider each individual's current weight and level of acculturation.     

Influence of object size on baseline identification, priming, and explicit memory

We investigated the influence of size on identification, priming, and explicit memory for color photos of common objects. Participants studied objects displayed in small, medium, and large sizes and memory was assessed with both implicit identification and explicit recognition tests. Overall, large objects were easier to identify than small objects and study-to-test changes in object size impeded performance on explicit but not implicit memory tests. In contrast to previous findings with line-drawings of objects but consistent with predictions from the distance-as-filtering hypothesis, we found that study-test size manipulations had large effects on old/new recognition memory test for objects displayed in large size at test but not for objects displayed small or medium at test. Our findings add to the growing body of literature showing that the findings obtained using line-drawings of objects do not necessarily generalize to color photos of common objects. We discuss implications of our findings for theories of object perception, memory, and eyewitness identification accuracy for objects.     

Population growth and social structure of confined colonies of mongolian gerbils: Scent gland size and marking behaviour as indices of social status

Male gerbils have larger ventral scent glands, and they mark more than females. In both sexes, scent gland activity is dependent on gonadal hormones. Observations on colonies of gerbils, living in enclosures or cages, showed that both scent gland size and marking behaviour were related to social status. In colonies founded by a single pair, breeding was confined to the original female. The infertility of the daughters was due to failure of sexual maturation. As this was always associated with a lack of development of the scent glands, the functional state of the latter could be used as an index of fecundity. A change in social organization (eg removal of the parents) caused previously infertile females to conceive and was accompanied by development of the scent glands If there was competition for dominance, the scent glands of the losers regressed; at autopsy, their ovaries and uteri appeared to be nonfunctional. The founding father usually had a larger scent gland than his sons, but the inhibition of sexual function was not as severe as in the females. However, the father characteristically showed much more marking behaviow in a neutral territory than his sons. None of the fem ales-except the mother-showed appreciable marking, and her scores were much lower than those of the dominant male. Asymptotic populations were reached at about the same level in enclosures and cages, implicating an intrinsic capacity for control independent of the number of animals per unit of space but probably related to the natural size of a social group. Stabilization of numbers was achieved not only by reproductive inhibition of young females, but also by cessation of breeding by the founding mother and death of litters. Littermates raised in enclosures without their parents showed delayed sexual maturation accompanied by fighting which resulted in the formation of a hierarchy headed by a breeding female and a dominant (marking) male.     

Body size preferences and sociocultural influences on attitudes towards obesity among Moroccan Sahraoui women

The purpose of this investigation was to study body size preferences and to examine the influence of sociocultural factors on obesity among 249 Moroccan Sahraoui women. Participants rated their ideal body size and the size they thought to be “healthy,” using a figural scale consisting of nine images ranging from thin to obese. They also noted which particular sociocultural influences affected their body size ratings. The results indicated that women's rating of ideal body size (4.88) was significantly larger than their rating of healthy body size (4.33). The desire to lose weight was very low even among the majority of obese women, and educational level did not affect desire to lose weight. Women not satisfied with their body size were more likely to report trying to gain weight rather than to lose it. The major factors reported to influence body size ideal were mothers, men, and traditional clothing. It is an enormous challenge for the health institutions of Morocco to prevent obesity and its complications. Prevention programs should include teenagers and key family members.     

Young children's change in strategies of size comparison: Effects of task repetition and strategy evaluation

This study examined how young children change their strategies for size comparison. Twenty-two 5 and 6-year-old children were asked to compare the sizes of geometric figures and their strategies were observed once a week over three weeks. Half of the children were also asked to evaluate presented strategies for comparing geometric figures. It was found that over three weeks not only children who evaluated the strategies but also children who did not increased correct responses, the strategy of placing one figure on another, and the strategy of adjusting two figures by two dimensions. Although more children became aware of the effectiveness of those strategies, there was no relationship between the evaluation and use of strategies.     

Category size and judgments of variability: The effects of seeing the trees in the forest1

Abstract: Competing predictions about the effects of category size on judgments of category variability were examined in two studies involving the presentation of exemplars of two artificial social groups. In contrast to predictions of some exemplar-based models, Experiment 1 demonstrated that a numerically smaller group was perceived to be more variable than a larger group on the standard deviation measure of frequency distribution estimates. The result was interpreted to be an effect of differential information load. Experiment 2 revealed that variability judgments were influenced by prior expectations about the central tendencies as well as by practice in retrieving information about category exemplars. When frequency distribution estimates were made subsequent to abstract tasks, expectations about the numerical majority reduced perceived variability, while this influence was mitigated when memory measures preceded the frequency estimates.     

Class size effects on literacy skills and literacy interest in first grade: A large-scale investigation

This article examines the impact of class size on literacy skills and on literacy interest in beginning readers from zones with specific educational needs in France. The data came from an experiment involving first graders in which teachers and pupils were randomly assigned to the different class types (small classes of 10-12 pupils vs. regular classes of 20-25 pupils).Globally, the findings reveal that class size has a (small) impact on the two basic literacy skills, reading (word recognition task) and spelling (word production task). Children with high literacy interest made more progress than children with low literacy interest. The analysis also explores the effect of four factors - early schooling, age, first language and socio-economic status - on the same type of literacy skills as above. Smaller classes most specifically improved performances in two types of population: children whose first language is French and children from intermediate and average socio-economic brackets. This means, in contrast, that neither the children from the most disadvantaged backgrounds nor the children whose first language was not French benefited from the use of smaller first grade classes. Data in this experiment are examined in the light of studies on the connections between class size, classroom procedures and pupils' engagement.     

Implications of accuracy, sensitivity, and variability of body size estimations to disordered eating

The current study was conducted to investigate the relationships between body size estimations and disordered eating symptomatology. The method of constant stimuli was used to derive three measures of self-perceived body size in 93 women: (1) accuracy of body size estimations (body image distortion); (2) sensitivity in discriminating body size within blocks of trials (body image sensitivity); and (3) variability in making body size estimations between blocks of trials (body image variability). Participants also completed measures of disordered eating. Although body image distortion correlated with dietary restraint and eating concern, body image variability accounted for additional variance in these variables, as well as variance in binge eating. The relationships involving body image variability were found to be mediated by body dissatisfaction and internalization of the thin ideal. Together, these results are consistent with the proposition that body image variability is a significant factor in disordered eating.     

Dual identities in intergroup contact: Group status and size moderate the generalization of positive attitude change

To explore the effects of various categorization strategies on intergroup bias within and beyond a contact situation, two experiments were conducted involving groups of different size and/or status that worked together on a cooperative task. Three categorization strategies (decategorization, recategorization, and dual identity) were compared, and bias was measured through symbolic reward allocations to people who were and were not actually encountered. In Experiment 1 (N = 129), we varied group size (minority or majority) and found that it affected bias within the contact situation—minority groups were more biased than majority groups. All of the categorization strategies limited bias and they did so equally well. Outside the contact situation, however, only the recategorization and dual identity strategies limited bias. In Experiment 2 (N = 156), we varied both group status (low or high) and group size. Both of these variables affected bias within the contact situation—high status groups were more biased than low status groups, and minority groups were again more biased than majority groups. Once again, all three categorization strategies limited bias and they did so equally well. Outside the contact situation, however, an interaction among the independent variables was observed. For minority groups, only the dual identity strategy limited bias, but none of the categorization strategies limited bias for majority groups.     

Schedule-induced drinking as functions of interpellet interval and draught size in the Java macaque

Three Java monkeys received food pellets that were assigned by both ascending and descending series of fixed-time schedules whose values varied between 8 and 256 seconds. The draught size dispensed by a concurrently available water-delivery tube was systematically varied between 1.0 and 0.3 milliliter per lick at various fixed-time values during the second and third series determinations. Session water intake was bitonically related to the interpellet interval and was determined by the interaction of (1) the probability of initiating a drinking bout, which fell off at the highest interpellet intervals and, (2) the size of the bout, which increased directly with increases in interpellet interval. Variations in draught size had little effect on total session intakes, but reduced bout size at draught sizes of 0.5 milliliter and below. Thus, a volume-regulation process of schedule-induced drinking operated generally at the session-intake level, but was limited to higher draught sizes at the bout level.