The KTSA and Emotional Pathology in Children

The ability of the nine KTSA symbolization scores to differentiate between normal and emotionally disturbed children was explored. Significant results were obtained for two scores (B and X). Contrary to the suggestions of the literature, the D score failed to discriminate between the groups. The results for the normal group were in general agreement with Abidin's (1966) norms. These results suggest that two of the KTSA symbolization scores can possibly be used independently for diagnostic purposes.     

Evidence against the myth of adjustment problems of people with high intellectual abilities

Personal and social adjustment of high-ability children and adolescents is a very important issue in the specialized literature. The differences found between data for and against appropriate adjustment in gifted children and adolescents could be explained by conceptual or methodological biases. In this work, the relation between adjustment and high abilities are contrasted in a sample of teenagers from the Canary Islands, using a screening procedure based on their scores in intelligence tests. Results show that, although gifted adolescents differ significantly from their peers in the control group in socio-economic variables and academic performance, there are no differences in personal, social and educational adjustment. We conclude that adjustment problems and high ability are independent variables, and there is no evidence to support that gifted individuals have adjustment problems.     

Cognitive performance and morning levels of salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase in children reporting high vs. low daily stress perception

The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of daily stress perception on cognitive performance and morning basal salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase levels in healthy children aged 9-12. Participants were classified by whether they had low daily perceived stress (LPS, n = 27) or a high daily perceived stress (HPS, n = 26) using the Children Daily Stress Inventory (CDSI). Salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase were measured at awakening and 30 minutes later. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Cognitive Drug Research assessment system. The HPS group exhibited significantly poorer scores on speed of memory (p < .05) and continuity of attention (p < .05) relative to the LPS group. The HPS group also showed significantly lower morning cortisol levels at awakening and at +30 minutes measures in comparison with the LPS group (p < .05), and mean morning cortisol levels were negatively correlated with speed of memory (p < .05) in the 53 participants. No significant differences were observed between both groups in alpha-amylase levels. These findings suggest that daily perceived stress in children may impoverish cognitive performance via its modulating effects on the HPA axis activity.     

Sustained attention in children at risk for schizophrenia: Findings with two visual continuous performance tests in a new sample

In partial replication of an earlier study, 35 children at high risk for schizophrenia, 25 children at high risk for affective disorder, and 53 normal control children from a new sample of 7- to 12-year-old subjects were tested with two new visual continuous performance tests. Response levels and intrasubject variability were analyzed separately. Multivariate analyses on factor scores derived from response levels indicate that "groups" is a significant predictor for a factor reflecting discriminability (or sensitivity) for the more difficult of these tests but not for the less difficult one, and that high risk for schizophrenia is associated with lower performance. Factor scores and multiple regression analyses were used to dichotomize subjects as to whether or not they are low performance outliers. A significantly larger proportion of subjects from the high risk for schizophrenia group than from the control groups were low performance outliers. Among subjects that developed psychopathology in adolescence, subjects at high risk for schizophrenia were more likely to have contributed low performance outliers early during childhood.     

Taking the next step: combining incrementally valid indicators to improve recidivism prediction

The possibility of combining indicators to improve recidivism prediction was evaluated in a sample of released federal prisoners randomly divided into a derivation subsample (n = 550) and a cross-validation subsample (n = 551). Five incrementally valid indicators were selected from five domains: demographic (age), historical (prior convictions), adjustment (prior incident reports), rating scale (Violation scale of the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form), and self-report (General Criminal Thinking score from the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles). After converting scores on the five indicators to a common scale (z score), two combined scores were calculated: a simple summed score (unweighted summed score) and a score computed using beta weights from a Cox survival analysis of the derivation subsample (weighted summed score). Correlational and receiver operating characteristic analyses revealed that the unweighted and weighted summed scores produced equivalent results and that both improved significantly on the results of the five contributing indicators.     

Evidence on age and ethnic status bias in factor scores and the comparison score for the AAMD adaptive behavior scale-school edition

This report analyzes the contribution of gender, ethnic status, age, and school classification to the five factor scores and the comparison score of the Adaptive Behavior Scale-School Edition (ABS-SE). These factor scores were derived from extensive analysis of the performance of subjects of different ages and different levels of mental retardation. The comparison score evolved from discriminant analysis of the factor scores and is computed as a weighted sum of the three factor scores from Part One of the ABS-SE. The results of the ANOVAs conducted to test the main and interaction effects showed significant mean differences between normal, mildly retarded, and moderately to severely retarded subjects over the age range from 3 through 16 years on the ABS-SE factor and comparison scores. In general, there was no significant contribution of either gender or ethnic status to scores from ages 7 through 16, but there was a significant difference attributable to ethnic status with a meaningful amount of explained variance in the community and self-sufficiency and comparison scores of subjects aged 3–6. Although these differences were significant, children 3–6 years old classified as white did not necessarily perform better on all factor scores than those of minority ethnic groups. Discussion of the results in the context of contemporary criteria for test bias and of competing explanations for ethnic group differences in performance of young children on the ABS-SE follows the presentation of the findings. The results provide additional evidence for the validity of the ABS-SE factor and comparison scores and show that in general the factor and comparison scores are not affected by gender or ethnic status.     

儿童2岁活跃性、自我控制与5年后学校适应——父母养育方式的调节作用

通过5年的追踪,考察儿童早期气质特征对后期社会适应的影响。选取200名2岁儿童,采用实验室观察法评价其气质上的活跃性和自我控制;在其7岁时追踪到125名儿童,请父母报告养育方式、班主任老师评价其社会能力和学业表现。结果表明：（1）儿童2岁时的活跃性对5年后学校适应的预测总体是消极的,并且受父母养育方式调节;父母的高限制和低压制能够抵消活跃性对学习问题和任务定向的消极影响;（2）儿童2岁时的自我控制对于5年后的所有积极学校适应指标（学业成绩、低学习问题、果敢社交、挫折耐受、任务定向）有直接预测作用。这一结果揭示了气质上的活跃性与自我控制在儿童发展过程中的不同作用,父母应根据孩子的气质特点实行差别化教育。     

School performance and IQ-test scores at age 13 as related to birth weight and gestational age

The cohort in the present longitudinal research program consisted of 873 children in an entire school grade, in a Swedish community. The present results showed a main effect of birth weight; low birth weight (LBW) children had lower school performance and intelligence-test (IQ) scores at age 13 than did normal birth weight (NBW) children irrespective of parental SES. Second, there was no significant main effect of gestational age (GA) on scholastic performance and IQ-test scores. Third, there was a significant main effect of the combination of birth weight and GA on scholastic performance and IQ-test scores. The LBW children born at term (38-40 pregnancy weeks; pw) had significantly lower scores and school grades as compared to the control group while the LBW children born with short gestational age (34-37 pw) and with very short gestational age (less than 34 pw) had significantly lower scores and marks in fewer areas of academic attainment.     

The Determiners of Energy Expenditure in String-Pulling by the Rat

A follow-up was made of 18 male dyslexic children (RDs) and a group of matched controls (Cs), who had all been judged free from emotional and school adjustment problems two years earlier, (a) to see if RDs' reading deficit had been overcome, (b) to measure “emotional overlay,” and (c) to find predictors of success in learning to read. Results showed that at the time of the follow-up (a) none of the RDs had overcome his reading disability despite remediational efforts; (b) RDs had significantly lower achievement levels and significantly more adjustment problems than Cs; (c) low scores for WISC Full Scale IQ, Vocabulary subtest, and Coding subtest were associated with large reading deficits two years later; and (d) high WISC Arithmetic and Coding subtest scores were associated with large gains in reading skill. Physiological measures did not predict size of deficit or gain in reading skill over time.     

Neurocognitive performance of 5- and 6-year-old children who met criteria for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 18 months follow-up: results from a prospective population study

The aim of this prospective study was to examine whether neurocognitive performance of children aged 5–6 years distinguished children who were later diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or borderline ADHD from children without ADHD after adjustment for behavioral measures and to examine the influence of comorbid psychopathology. Out of a general population of 1,317 children, 366 children were selected on the basis of their scores on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Eighteen months later, the parents were interviewed using a standardized child psychiatric interview: 33 children were classified as ADHD and 75 children as borderline ADHD, and there were 258 children without ADHD. Children with rated ADHD were significantly impaired on measures of visuomotor ability and working memory compared to children without ADHD after adjustment for CBCL results. The performance of borderline ADHD children was in between that of children with and without ADHD. In addition, 4 groups of children were analyzed: 9 ADHD, 24 ADHD with comorbid oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD), 59 ODD/CD, and 274 controls. Children with rated comorbid ADHD and ODD/CD performed significantly worse on these tasks compared to children with rated ODD/CD and control children while they did not differ from ADHD children. Our results imply that neurocognitive measures can contribute to the early identification of ADHD with and without comorbid ODD/CD.     

Interpretation of the personality inventory for children-revised (PIC-R): Influence of cognitive impairment

The Personality Inventory for Children-Revised (PIC-R) is a parent-report measure of social-emotional adjustment for children 3 to 16 years of age. The present study examined the clinical value of the PIC-R by exploring the impact of age and developmental status on PIC-R profiles, particularly on the Psychosis (PSY) scale, within a sample of preschool and school-age children referred for assessment of suspected cognitive impairment and learning problems. Compared to school-age children, significantly more preschoolers obtained elevated scores on the Psychosis scale; those preschoolers with cognitive impairments were even more likely to obtain significantly elevated Psychosis scale scores, despite the absence of diagnosed childhood psychosis. No significant relationship was found between Psychosis scale elevations and cognitive impairment in the school-age group. The PIC-R was moderately accurate in identifying cognitively impaired preschoolers but only minimally accurate in identifying cognitively impaired school-age children.     

The effect of age-at-testing on verbal memory among children following severe traumatic brain injury

Memory deficits are a common sequelae following childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI), which often have serious implications on age-related academic skills. The current study examined verbal memory performance using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) in a pediatric TBI sample. Verbal memory abilities as well as the effect of age at-testing on performance were examined. A sample of 67 children following severe TBI (age average = 12.3 ± 2.74) and 67 matched controls were evaluated using the RAVLT. Age effect at assessment was examined using two age groups: above and below 12 years of age during evaluation. Differences between groups were examined via the 9 RAVLT learning trials and the 7 composite scores conducted out of them. Children following TBI recalled significantly less words than controls on all RAVLT trials and had significantly lower scores on all composite scores. However, all of these scores fell within the low average range. Further analysis revealed significantly lower than average performance among the older children (above 12 years), while scores of the younger children following TBI fell within average limits. To conclude, verbal memory deficits among children following severe TBI demonstrate an age-at-testing effect with more prominent problems occurring above 12 years at the time of evaluation. Yet, age-appropriate performance among children below 12 years of age may not accurately describe memory abilities at younger ages following TBI. It is therefore recommended that clinicians address child’s age at testing and avoid using a single test as an indicator of verbal memory functioning post TBI.     

Cognitive development of lead exposed children from ages 6 to 15 years: an application of growth curve analysis.

The effect of lead exposure on cognitive growth patterns was assessed in a longitudinal study of 196 children. Performances on tests of verbal comprehension and perceptual organization (Vocabulary & Block Design, Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children) were measured at ages 6.5, 11 and 15 years. Growth curve analyses revealed that the quadratic model best described the relationship between test scores and age. Children with higher lead levels, as measured at age 15 years, demonstrated lower verbal comprehension scores over time and greater decline in their rate of Vocabulary development at age 15 years, as compared to children with lower lead levels. Lead exposure was not significantly associated with growth in perceptual organization test scores. Socioeconomic status and maternal intelligence were statistically significantly associated with growth patterns for both test scores, independent of the effects of lead. The findings suggest that lead negatively impacts the developmental progression of specific cognitive skills from childhood through adolescence.     

An examination of project aware: The effects on children's attitudes toward themselves,others, and school

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of Project AWARE on children's attitudes about themselves, peers, teachers, principals, and school. Data were collected on children's sex, race, stanine score on achievement tests, and pretest performance in order to determine the differential effects of the treatment. Eighty students were included in the study, 40 in the experimental group and 40 in the control group. All were from fourth and fifth grade classrooms. The major findings were that children involved in the program achieved greater personal adjustment and accepted responsibility for negative outcomes in social situations (internal control). White children scored higher in personal and social adjustment. Black children evidenced more positive attitudes toward school. Girls scored significantly higher than boys on the social adjustment subtests and attitudes toward peers. Black children in the control group had less positive attitudes toward teachers than white children in the experimental group     

Factors in the referral of children for behavioral treatment: A comparison of mothers of clinic-referred deviant,clinic-referred non-deviant and non-c

The purpose of this study was to compare a non-clinic sample of mothers and children to two groups of clinic-referred children and their mothers. The two clinic-referred groups differed from one another in that the selection criterion for one group of children (Clinic Deviant) was that they were significantly more deviant and non-compliant than the non-clinic group whereas the selection criterion for the second group of children (Clinic Non-deviant) was that they did not differ significantly from the non-clinic group on deviant and non-compliant behavior. Home observations by independent observers and parent questionnaires examining parental adjustment and parental perceptions of child adjustment were completed. The results indicated that both clinic groups perceived their children as more maladjusted than parents in the non-clinic groups perceived their children. Parents of the children in the Clinic Non-deviant group were significantly more depressed than those in the remaining two groups, whereas parents in the Clinic Deviant group issued more vague, interrupted commands than those in the Clinic Non-deviant group. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Relationships among accumulated lifetime life events,prosocial skills,and behavior problems in elementary school children

Relationships among life events, prosocial skills, and behavior problems for 91 first through fourth grade children were examined. The data were based on mothers' reports of their children's lifetime life events, current prosocial skills, and current behavior problems. Higher prosocial skills scores significantly predicted lower Externalizing behavior problem scores. Higher weighted life events scores significantly predicted higher Internalizing behavior problem scores. The weighted life event scores×prosocial skills scores interaction did not significantly predict either Externalizing or Internalizing behavior problem scores. The more parsimonious main effects conceptualization suggests that life events and prosocial skills are orthogonal in young, elementary school children.     

Marital dissolution and distress in a psychiatric population: A longitudinal design

There has been interest in recent years in the relationship between marital distress and psychopathology. It has been rare, however, for investigators to follow patients after their release from the hospital and observe the course of their marital relationships. The present study included patients meeting criteria for three DSM III DISORDERS (MAjor depressive, bipolar, and schizophrenic) and a normal control sample, all of whom are participants in an ongoing longitudinal study of children at risk for psychopathology (Stony Brook High-Risk Project; Weintraub & Neale, 1984). Marital Adjustment Test (MAT; Locke & Wallace, 1959) scores were collected on patients at entry into the project (Phase I) and at a three year follow-up (Phase II). Course of marriage was defined as negative if the couple's marital adjustment was rated as poor at Phase II or resulted in divorce or separation at Phase II. It was found that only the depressed group differed from the normal group in having significantly worse course of marital relationship; 84% of the depressive couples showed a “negative” course of marital change over time. However, all three patient groups had significantly higher rates of divorce by Phase II. MAT scores at Phase I successfully predicted course of marital relationship for all diagnostic groups. Implications for aftercare of psychiatric inpatients are discussed.     

Neuropsychological Functioning in Preschool-age Children with Sickle Cell Disease: The Role of Illness-related and Psychosocial Factors

Cognitive and academic deficits have been identified in school-aged children with sickle cell disease (SCD). However, there have been very few identified studies that examine neuropsychological functioning in preschool-age children with SCD. It is important to understand effects of SCD from a developmental perspective and to consider the contribution of environmental factors in this at-risk population. Neuropsychological functioning of preschool-age children with SCD and no history of overt stroke (n = 26) was examined across several domains (language, immediate memory/brief attention, visuospatial/visuoconstructional, motor/visuomotor). The mean Full Scale IQ for the sample was 89.0. Performance on the Immediate Memory/ Brief Attention domain was significantly higher than the other domains, although the pattern of performance was relatively consistent, with mean standard scores ranging from 88.0 to 95.0. Disease severity was not significantly related to cognitive functioning in this group of young children with SCD. Socioeconomic status (SES) was significantly correlated with most domain scores and, based on regression analyses, accounted for 18% to 47% of the variance in functioning. Psychosocial factors, such as number of children living in the home and parental stress levels, were negatively associated with Motor/Visuomotor skills, and weekly hours in school/day care was positively associated with language-related skills. Results suggest that, at this young age, psychosocial risk factors appear to be appropriate targets for intervention, with the goal of improving long-term outcome in children with SCD. Further investigations should include comparison to a matched control group.     

Executive and attentional contributions to Theory of Mind deficit in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children has been associated with attentional and executive problems, but also with socioemotional difficulties possibly associated with deficits in Theory of Mind (ToM). Socioemotional problems in ADHD are associated with more negative prognoses, notably interpersonal, educational problems, and an increased risk of developing other psychiatric disorders that emphasize the need to clarify the nature of their ToM deficits. In this study, we hypothesized that ToM dysfunction in children with ADHD is largely attributable to their attentional and/or executive deficits. Thirty-one children with ADHD (8–12 years, IQ > 85) and 31 typically developing (TD) children were assessed using executive functions (inhibition, planning, and flexibility) and attentional tasks, as well as two advanced ToM tasks (Reading the Mind in the Eyes and Faux Pas) involving different levels of executive control. Children with ADHD performed more poorly than TD children in attentional, executive function, and ToM tasks. Linear regression analyses conducted in the ADHD group indicated that inhibition scores predicted performance on the “Faux Pas” task the best, while attention scores were the best for predicting performance on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. When controlled for inhibition and attentional variables, ToM performance in children with ADHD was actually similar to TD children. Contrarily, controlling for ToM scores did not normalize performance for inhibition and attentional tasks in children with ADHD. This unidirectional relationship suggests that deficits in the EF and attentional domains are responsible for ToM deficits in ADHD, which therefore may contribute to their socioemotional difficulties.     

Neuropsychological functioning in preschool-age children with sickle cell disease: the role of illness-related and psychosocial factors.

Cognitive and academic deficits have been identified in school-aged children with sickle cell disease (SCD). However, there have been very few identified studies that examine neuropsychological functioning in preschool-age children with SCD. It is important to understand effects of SCD from a developmental perspective and to consider the contribution of environmental factors in this at-risk population. Neuropsychological functioning of preschool-age children with SCD and no history of overt stroke (n = 26) was examined across several domains (language, immediate memory/brief attention, visuospatial/visuoconstructional, motor/visuomotor). The mean Full Scale IQ for the sample was 89.0. Performance on the Immediate Memory/ Brief Attention domain was significantly higher than the other domains, although the pattern of performance was relatively consistent, with mean standard scores ranging from 88.0 to 95.0. Disease severity was not significantly related to cognitive functioning in this group of young children with SCD. Socioeconomic status (SES) was significantly correlated with most domain scores and, based on regression analyses, accounted for 18% to 47% of the variance in functioning. Psychosocial factors, such as number of children living in the home and parental stress levels, were negatively associated with Motor/Visuomotor skills, and weekly hours in school/day care was positively associated with language-related skills. Results suggest that, at this young age, psychosocial risk factors appear to be appropriate targets for intervention, with the goal of improving long-term outcome in children with SCD. Further investigations should include comparison to a matched control group.