Children use nonverbal cues from an adult to evaluate peers

What factors contribute to children’s tendency to view individuals as having different traits and abilities? The present research tested whether young children are influenced by adults’ nonverbal behaviors when making inferences about peers. In Study 1, participants (aged 5–6 years) viewed multiple videos of interactions between a “teacher” and two “students”; all individuals were unfamiliar to participants. In each clip, the students behaved similarly, but the teacher did not: She either smiled, nodded, touched, or shook her head at one student, and she looked at the other student with a neutral expression. In Study 1, children tended to infer that students who received more positive behaviors from the teacher were smarter, nicer, and stronger. Study 2 pitted differences in the teacher’s behavior against differences in the students’ performance. When asked who was smarter, children selected lower-performing students who received more positive nonverbal cues from the teacher rather than higher-performing students who received less positive cues. These findings indicate that an authority figure’s nonverbal behaviors can influence children’s inferences about others and shed light on one mechanism guiding young children’s evaluations of people in their social world.     

Social influence processes affecting adolescent substance use

Social influence is central to models of adolescent substance use. Nonetheless, researchers fail to delineate the various forms of social influence. A framework that distinguishes between active (explicit drug offers) and passive (social modeling and overestimation of friends' use) social pressure was tested. The effect of these processes on alcohol and cigarette use was examined with 526 seventh graders taking part in an alcohol prevention program. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that pretest measures of alcohol use, offers, modeling, and overestimation each accounted for unique variance in posttest alcohol use. Similar results were obtained for cigarette smoking. The general model was not significantly different for boys and girls, or for prior users and prior nonusers, supporting the generalizability of the framework. Implications for intervention programs are discussed.     

Co-occurrence of personality disorders with mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders in a young adult population

The purpose of this study was to determine the co-occurrence of DSM- III-R personality disorders (PDs) with mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders in a young adult population. The members of the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort Project, living in the city of Oulu with an age of 31 years (N = 1,609) were invited to participate in a two-phase field study. The SCID I and II were used as diagnostic instruments. One hundred and seventy-seven out of 321 interviewed subjects met the criteria for mood, anxiety, or substance use disorders. Altogether 72 (41%) of the subjects with an Axis I disorder met the criteria for at least one PD. The weighted co-occurrence rate of any PD varied from 28% for mood disorders to 47% for anxiety disorders. PDs, especially those in Cluster C, are highly associated with Axis I psychiatric disorders in population.     

A longitudinal study of children of alcoholics: predicting young adult substance use disorders, anxiety, and depression

This study tested the specificity of parent alcoholism effects on young adult alcohol and drug abuse/dependence, anxiety, and depression, and tested whether adolescent symptomatology and substance use mediated parent alcoholism effects. Participants were from a longitudinal study in which a target child was assessed in adolescence and young adulthood with structured interview measures (N = 454 families at Time 1). Results showed unique effects of parent alcoholism on young adult substance abuse/dependence diagnoses over and above the effects of other parental psychopathology. There was some evidence of parent alcoholism effects on young adult depression and of maternal alcoholism effects on young adult anxiety, although these were not found consistently across subsamples. Mediational models suggested that parent alcoholism effects could be partially (but not totally) explained by adolescent externalizing symptoms.     

Identifying shared environmental contributions to early substance use: the respective roles of peers and parents

Although behavior genetic studies have suggested that early substance use is primarily environmentally mediated, no study has sought to identify the specific sources of environmental variance. Using data obtained from multiple informants, this study assessed the contributions of peer deviance and parent-child relationship problems to substance use in 14-year-old male and female twins (N = 1,403) drawn from the Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS). All three phenotypes were influenced primarily by shared environmental variance (average c(2) =.51), as was the overlap among them. Moreover, peer deviance and parent-child relationship problems accounted for approximately 77% of the variance in early substance use. Findings also indicated that peer deviance, but not parent-child relationship problems, accounted uniquely for variance in early substance use.     

The influence of parent-child relationship on young adolescents' use of safety equipment. The Norwegian Longitudinal Health Behavior Study

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine the extent to which the parent-child relationship, as perceived by young adolescents at age 13, may account for the use of various types of safety equipment at age 13 and 14 in terms of seat belts, bicycle helmets, motorcycle helmets when passenger, reflectors on the clothing when outside in the dark, and lifejackets when on board small boats. Parental influence was assessed in terms of three scales: Parental support, parental monitoring of the youngsters, and opposition towards the parents, with satisfactory internal consistencies (alphas >0.78). The results showed that each of the three constructs significantly accounted for an independent portion of the variance in the use of safety equipment measures. In sum they accounted for 20% of the variance in the use of safety equipment at age 13, and about 10% at age 14. The findings are discussed with regard to the implications for accident prevention measures aimed at young people.     

同伴对青少年冒险行为的影响及其作用机制

青少年更倾向于从事冒险或鲁莽行为, 并且更容易受到同伴影响。从个人特质和社交互动等多个角度探讨的研究结果表明, 同伴对青少年冒险行为存在助长作用, 即当同伴在场时, 青少年的行为会更加冒险。同伴对青少年冒险行为的作用机制可以从心理、神经、遗传、社会文化等多个层面进行解释：在心理层面, 这种影响源于青少年寻求同伴认可和归属感的需要, 以及社会学习的作用; 在神经机制层面, 源于认知控制网络和刺激处理系统的相互作用; 在遗传层面, 源于特定基因的易感性等; 在社会文化层面, 同伴影响会因文化差异而带来程度与表现上的差异。未来研究应从发展、文化心理、构建复杂模型网络等视角深入探究同伴对青少年冒险行为的影响。     

The association of tanning behavior with psycho-tropic medication use among young adult women

Despite its known association with skin cancer, tanning remains popular among young adult women. Indoor tanning behavior has been found to be associated with affective and addictive disorders. To better understand potential psychological and biological mechanisms of tanning behavior, we investigated associations between tanning and medication (psychotropic and other) use among young women. Two hundred and fifty-three women age 18–29 years old were recruited from two northeastern university campus communities. Women self-reported tanning frequency and chronic medication use. In both univariate and multivariate analyses, indoor tanning ≥12 times last year was significantly associated with use of psychotropic medication and anti-depressants in particular. Sunbathing was not associated with medication use. Potential reasons for associations between tanning and psychotropic medication use are discussed. Indoor tanners should be warned that some psychotropic medications are photosensitizing, thus increasing risk for burns and other skin damage from indoor tanning.     

The influence of gender on children's ratings of fear in self and same-aged peers

In the present study, gender differences in children's fear were examined. Nine-year-old children were asked to rate their own fears, the fears of their peers of the opposite gender, and the fears of their peers of the same gender, using the Fear Survey Schedule for Children--Revised (Ollendick, 1983). Consistent with previous investigations, the results revealed that boys rated themselves as less fearful than girls. In addition, both male and female judges rated "other boys" as less afraid than "other girls." These findings emerged whether fear was examined in terms of intensity or prevalence. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The effects of young children's affiliations with prosocial peers on subsequent emotionality in peer interactions

Preschoolers’ (60 boys and 64 girls, M age = 50.73 months) affiliations with prosocial peers were observed in naturally occurring interactions and then examined in relation to positive and negative emotionality within their peer interactions one semester later. Greater affiliation with prosocial peers in the fall was related to enhanced positive emotionality (especially for girls) and decreased negative emotionality (especially for boys) in later peer interactions. These findings held when initial levels of the emotion were controlled and were found above and beyond variations in classroom levels of prosociality. The findings suggest that peers exert influence in early childhood and that these effects can positively affect the quality of young children's later peer interactions.     

Conjoint developmental trajectories of young adult alcohol and tobacco use

Developmental and etiological advances have set the stage for considering trajectories of problem behavior across the life course, but little work thus far addresses co-occurring problem behavior trajectories. Although recent work characterizes drinking and smoking trajectories, none has explored the course of concurrent drinking and smoking. Using panel data from the Monitoring the Future Project (N=32,087), the authors applied growth mixture modeling to 4 waves of heavy drinking and smoking in a young-adult sample. The authors extracted a single latent group membership factor from heavy drinking and smoking. Associations between trajectory classes and risk factors were relatively unique to the substance being predicted. The association of smoking with alcohol expectancies and delinquency appeared to exist by virtue of smoking's comorbidity with drinking.     

Alcohol use as a situational influence on young women's pregnancy risk-taking behaviors

Recent studies have found that many young women just beginning their sexual lives use alcohol prior to intercourse. A large number appear to drink heavily enough prior to sex to compromise their ability to use contraceptives. The question emerges whether there is a relationship between drinking before intercourse, the nonuse of birth control methods, and unplanned pregnancies. The present research describes 43 instances of intercourse which resulted in unplanned pregnancies in 14- to 21-year-olds. Variables examined included alcohol use prior to sex, amount of alcohol consumed, the use of other drugs, the planning of intercourse, respondents' stated reasons for nonuse of contraceptives, and other general demographic data.     

The influence of peers on children''s judgments about engaging in behaviors that threaten their safety

Unintentional injuries are the number one cause of death among children beyond one year of age. Many injuries among school-age children happen when they are away from home and in the company of peers. The aim in this study was to examine peer influences on children's judgments about engaging in behaviors that threaten their physical safety. Children were shown pictures depicting play situations which involved different paths of travel, each of which posed different degrees of injury risk. Children were asked to select the path they would take, and to assign a danger rating to reflect their beliefs about the likelihood of injury along this path. A peer-influence session followed, in which a same-sex friend attempted to persuade the child to take another path. Following exposure to the friend's arguments, children made their final decision about a path of travel in each play situation; the peer was not present during this decision and the experimenter present was unaware of the child's initial path choice. A number of other measures were taken in an effort to determine factors that influence children's risk-taking decisions. Results revealed that friends were successful in their persuasion efforts: for two of the three play situations, a significant number of children who initially selected low-risk paths switched to more risky paths. Appraisal of danger related to initial path decisions, but number of hazards identified and injury history did not significantly relate to initial decisions. The implications of these results for our understanding of injury-outcome processes are discussed.     

Employee substance use and on-the-job behaviors.

Substance use and job behaviors were assessed in a sample of municipal employees from a large city in the southwestern United States. Job behaviors included psychological and physical withdrawal, positive work behaviors, and antagonistic work behaviors. Employees who reported substance use at or away from work were found to more frequently engage in withdrawal activities and antagonistic work behaviors than did nonusers, although users and nonusers did not differ on positive work behaviors. We tested hierarchical regression models to determine whether substance use contributed unique variance to the prediction of job behaviors after we controlled for variance associated with personal and job background domains. Substance use added unique variance to the prediction of psychological and physical withdrawal behaviors but not to positive or antagonistic work behaviors.     

Trait urgency and substance use decision making in adolescents and young adults: The role of socio-affective factors

The personality trait of urgency has been linked to substance use outcomes. This study examined possible mechanisms underlying this relationship. A total of 187 participants divided into two age groups (adolescents aged 15–17 and young adults aged 18–21) completed measures of urgency and affective associations about substance use. They were then asked to read a hypothetical situation in which a protagonist considers using a ‘legal high’, and to report their perceived peer approval and perceived positive and negative consequences of such substance use, as well as the likelihood that they would personally use the substance. Multiple-group path analysis was employed to test a model by which urgency influenced the substance use decision via affective associations and perceived peer approval. In adolescents, urgency was significantly related to positive affective associations, and a significant indirect path from urgency to decision via affective associations was found. In young adults, there was a significant path from urgency to decision via peer approval. Results indicate that high urgency individuals may rely on socio-affective information when considering whether to engage in substance use.     

The relationship of early adolescent substance use to extracurricular activities, peer influence, and personal attitudes

Two hundred and thirty-seven seventh- and eighth-grade students were assessed for levels of drug/alcohol use, involvement in extracurricular activities, peer influence, and personal attitudes. Cross-tabulations and the chi-square test of independence were used to statistically compare the three groups (non-users, users, and abusers). Several trends emerged from the data.     

Effects of homophobic name‐calling and verbal sexual harassment on substance use among young adults

Verbal aggression victimization, such as homophobic name‐calling, has been linked to heavier substance use among young people, but little longitudinal research has examined how different types of victimization may affect substance use or whether certain psychosocial factors moderate these risks. In a diverse cohort (N = 2,663), latent transition analysis was used to model heterogeneity in victimization (age 19) and substance use (age 20). Four victimization (high victimization, homophobic name‐calling only, verbal sexual harassment only, and low victimization) and three substance use (poly‐substance use, alcohol, and cannabis only, low all) classes were identified. The high victimization and homophobic name‐calling only classes had the highest probabilities of transitioning into the poly‐substance use class, and the high victimization class had the highest probability of transitioning into the alcohol and cannabis only class. The probability of transitioning into the low all substance use class was highest in the low victimization class and lowest in the high victimization class. For the high victimization class, greater depressive symptoms increased the odds, and better peer relationship quality decreased the odds, of transitioning into the poly‐substance use and alcohol and cannabis only classes. For the homophobic name‐calling only class, greater depressive symptoms increased the odds of transitioning into the poly‐substance use class. Homophobic name‐calling, alone or in combination with verbal sexual harassment, is a risk factor for escalating substance use in young adulthood, especially among victims with depressive symptoms.     

The role of the self‐fulfilling prophecy in young adolescents' responsiveness to a substance use prevention program

This research examined whether naturally occurring self‐fulfilling prophecies influenced adolescents' responsiveness to a substance use prevention program. The authors addressed this issue with a unique methodological approach that was designed to enhance the internal validity of research on naturally occurring self‐fulfilling prophecies by experimentally controlling for prediction without influence. Participants were 321 families who were assigned to an adolescent substance use prevention program that either did or did not systematically involve parents. Results showed that parents' perceptions about the value of involving parents in adolescent substance use prevention predicted adolescents' alcohol use more strongly among families assigned to the prevention program that systematically involved parents than to the one that did not. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Maternal employment and early adolescent substance use.

Research stimulated by increases in maternal employment has focused primarily on children, even though mothers of adolescents are more likely to be employed. It is adolescents who experience developmental changes that promote participation in adult behaviors in advance of their abilities. This study investigated the effects of maternal employment on the use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and other substances by early adolescents. A sample of ninth-grade students responded to a 48-item survey about their substance use behavior. A comparison of maternal employment patterns (full-time vs. part-time/not employed outside the home) indicated no significant differences in substance use behavior. These results confirmed and extended the growing literature regarding the nonharmful effects of maternal employment on adolescent adjustment and behavior.