Familial correlates of social anxiety in children and adolescents

Retrospective studies suggest a relationship between parental rearing practices and social phobia. The present study investigated whether socially anxious children perceive their current parental rearing as rejecting, overprotective, and lacking emotional warmth, and as emphasizing the importance of other's opinion, and de-emphasizing social initiatives and family sociability. Furthermore, we examined whether parents of socially anxious children report to rely on such rearing practices, and suffer themselves from social fears. A regression analysis as well as extreme group comparisons were applied. Little support was found for the presumed role of the assessed family rearing aspects in the development of social anxiety in children. Solely family sociability (children's and mothers' report) and children's perception of overprotection of the mother predicted social anxiety in the regression analysis. Given the influence of the mentioned rearing practices, social anxiety of the mother still significantly predicted social anxiety of the child. In the extreme group comparisons, differences in the expected direction were found between socially anxious and normal children on parental rejection, emotional warmth, and family sociability. However, the lack of differences between socially anxious and clinical control children suggests that these variables do not form a specific pathway to social fears.     

Connection Between Parent–Child Religiosity: Moderated Mediation by Perceived Maternal and Paternal Warmth and Overprotection and Emerging Adult Gender

Previous research has shown a strong connection between parental religiosity and parenting behaviors in the transmission of religion from parent to child. Our study expanded upon previous research by examining how perceived maternal and paternal warmth and overprotection mediated the relation between parental and personal religiosity in males and females. A sample of 486 emerging adults reported maternal, paternal, and personal religiosity as well as their parents’ parenting behaviors. Results indicated that perceived paternal warmth served as a mediator for males only but neither perceived maternal nor paternal overprotection mediated the relationship between parental religiosity and emerging adult religiosity. Gender moderated the paths from perceived paternal religiosity to paternal overprotection, such that the relationship was stronger for females, and perceived paternal warmth to emerging adult religiosity, such that the relationship was stronger for males. Overall, results demonstrated that mediation effects occurred for males only, suggesting moderated mediation.

     

The relationship between child-report, parent self-report, and partner report of perceived parental rearing behaviors and anxiety in children and parents

This study investigated the relationship between child anxiety, parental anxiety, and perceived current parental rearing practices, using a multiple informants approach, that is, by aggregating the perception of the child, parent and partner on parental rearing behaviors. Unselected children aged 9–12 (n=75) and both their biological parents filled in the SCARED-C to measure child anxiety, and parents completed the SCARED-A to measure parental anxiety. In addition, child report, parental self-report, and partner report of the rearing dimensions “autonomy-encouragement versus overprotection”, “acceptance versus rejection”, and “psychological control” of both parents was assessed. Results showed that the homogeneity of some rearing dimensions using a single informant was insufficient, but sufficient when using multiple informants. Inter-informant agreement was low (M=0.29). Three-informants' aggregates yielded good generalizability (M=0.54), and the generalizability of six-informants' aggregates (combining both parents) was impressive (M=0.76). Using multiple informants, parental autonomy granting versus overprotection was substantially related to child anxiety (r=−0.41, p<0.001), as well as to parental anxiety (r=−0.45, p<0.001). More precisely, paternal autonomy–overprotection was predominantly related to child anxiety, whereas maternal autonomy–overprotection was predominantly related to maternal anxiety. Acceptance versus rejection and psychological control were only modestly related to child and parental anxiety.     

Assessment of Anxious Rearing Behaviors with a Modified Version of “Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran” Questionnaire for Children

This study examined the psychometric properties of a modified version of the EMBU for Children (EMBU-C), a 40-item questionnaire measuring youths' perceptions of three main types of parental rearing (i.e., emotional warmth, rejection, and overprotection) as well as anxious rearing behaviors. For this purpose, modified EMBU-C data were obtained in a large sample of children and adolescents (N = 1681). Results showed that the factor structure of the modified EMBU-C was satisfactory: a clear four-factor solution emerged representing the hypothesized types of parental rearing behaviors. Higher-order factor analysis demonstrated the presence of two superordinate dimensions of parental rearing, namely care and control. Furthermore, all modified EMBU-C scales appeared to be reliable in terms of internal consistency and test–retest stability. Finally, positive relationships were found between anxious rearing, overprotection, and rejection, on the one hand, and children's anxiety symptoms, on the other hand.     

Parenting Behaviors and Childhood Anxiety: A Psychometric Investigation of the EMBU-C

Parent rearing behaviors, including both behavioral modeling and parent–child interactions, are associated with anxiety in children. Patterns of overprotection or rejecting behavior from parents may lead children to develop behavioral avoidance, lower self-confidence, and higher symptoms of anxiety. Additional research is needed to further elucidate the role that parenting behavior plays in the development of childhood anxiety. Unfortunately, few measures of parenting behavior exist. The EMBU-C is a 40-item child-report measure of these behaviors, but empirical data supporting the psychometric properties of the EMBU-C are limited. The current investigation examined the psychometric properties of the EMBU-C in the context of childhood anxiety. Participants were 213 children with an anxiety disorder and 150 recruited from the community (all aged 8–13 years). Overall, the EMBU-C demonstrated promising psychometrics. In terms of convergent validity, parent rearing behaviors described on the EMBU-C were significantly related to children’s anxiety symptoms, anxiety-related disability, parenting stress, family functioning and children’s externalizing behaviors. Further, the overprotection and anxious-rearing subscales discriminated between clinical and community participants. Finally, parental overprotection significantly predicted increases in child anxiety and anxiety-related disability 1 year later. Thus, the EMBU-C appears to have value as a clinical tool for assessing parental factors that may contribute to anxiety in children. Recommendations for further item development and measure improvement are offered.     

Internalizing and Externalizing Problems as Correlates of Self-Reported Attachment Style and Perceived Parental Rearing in Normal Adolescents

The current study examined relationships between attachment style, parental rearing behaviors, and symptoms of internalizing and externalizing in a large sample of nonreferred adolescents (N = 742). Adolescents completed (a) a single-item measure of attachment style, (b) the child version of the EMBU, a questionnaire measuring perceptions of parental rearing behaviors, and (c) the Youth Self-Report, an index of severity of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Results showed that attachment style was related to internalizing as well as externalizing symptoms. More specifically, adolescents who classified themselves as avoidantly or ambivalently attached displayed higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms than adolescents who classified themselves as securely attached. Furthermore, perceived parental rearing behaviors were also associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms. That is, low levels of emotional warmth and high levels of rejection and overprotection were accompanied by high levels of psychopathological symptoms. Finally, both attachment and parental rearing behaviors accounted for a unique proportion of the variance in internalizing symptoms. Yet, when predicting externalizing symptoms, only parental rearing behaviors declared a significant proportion of the variance.     

Child Perceptions of Parental Care and Overprotection in Children with Cancer and Healthy Children

The primary aims of this study were to: (a) examine child perceptions of overprotection; and (b) explore how these perceptions relate to child health and adjustment. Children with a prior diagnosis of cancer (n = 205) and children without a history of serious illness (n = 76) reported on parental overprotective and caring behaviors. Children with cancer were recruited from one of four strata based on the elapsed time since their cancer diagnosis (1–6 months; 6–24 months; 2–5 years; >5 years) Children also reported on symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress. Children with cancer did not differ from healthy children in their perceptions of parental care or overprotection. Child distress was more strongly related to perceptions of care and overprotection than child’s health status. Children with cancer do not report their parents approach to care and protection differently than children without a cancer history. These findings mirror prior research examining parental perceptions of overprotection and suggest that, despite the challenges of parenting a child with serious illness, parental protection is not significantly altered.     

Parental Perceived Control and Social Support: Linkages to Change in Parenting Behaviors During Early Adolescence

Prior studies have found that parents’ perceptions of control over their lives and their social support may both be important for parenting behaviors. Yet, few studies have examined their unique and interacting influence on parenting behaviors during early adolescence. This longitudinal study of rural parents in two‐parent families (N = 636) investigated (a) whether perceived control and social support when their youth were in sixth grade were independently or interactively associated with changes in parenting behaviors (discipline, standard setting) and parent–child warmth and hostility 6 months later and (b) if these linkages differed by parent gender. We also investigated the interactive links between perceived control, social support, and parenting. Specifically, we tested if parents’ perceived control moderated the linkages between social support and parenting and if these linkages differed by parent gender. Greater perceived control predicted more increases in parents’ consistent discipline and standard setting, whereas greater social support predicted increases in parent–child warmth and decreases in parent–child hostility. Parental perceived control moderated the effect of social support on parental warmth: For mothers only, social support was significantly linked to parent–child warmth only when mothers had low (but not high) perceived self‐control. The discussion focuses on reasons why perceived control and social support may have associations with different aspects of parenting and why these might differ for mothers and fathers.     

Parental fear of negative child evaluation in child social anxiety

Parental anxiety has been linked to child anxiety in various studies. However, specific mechanisms responsible for this relationship in the context of child social anxiety are still largely unknown. A potential mediator between parental and child social anxiety may be parental fear of negative child evaluation (FNCE). To investigate this concept, we collected self-reported data from families with 9- to 16-year old children in a non-clinical sample (458 mother-child dyads and 336 father-child dyads). While both paternal and maternal FNCE predicted child social anxiety, only maternal FNCE mediated the association between maternal and child social anxiety. Maternal report of FNCE was also found to mediate the association between maternal social anxiety and general childhood emotional problems but not externalising problems. Overall, this study is the first to identify a mediator variable that may explain the association between mother and child social anxiety in school-age children. The results shed new light on the mechanisms by which fear and anxiety may be transmitted across generations.     

Parental Rearing Behaviors and Adolescent’s Social Trust: Roles of Adolescent Self-esteem and Class Justice Climate

Research on the antecedents and underlying mechanisms of the formation of adolescent social trust is scant. Family and school are two major environments in which adolescents become socialized. The current study examined the effect of parental rearing behaviors (rejection, emotional warmth and overprotection) on adolescent social trust, exploring the mediating role of adolescent self-esteem and the multilevel moderated role of the Level 2 variable class justice climate. The sample included 612 (12–16 years old) middle school students in China. Participants completed the s-EMBU, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Rosenberg’s Faith in People Scale and the perceptions of class justice scale, along with other control variables. The results suggested that parental rearing behaviors significantly predicted adolescent social trust, regardless of adolescent gender or age. Additional mediation analysis suggested that parental rearing behaviors had both direct effects on adolescent social trust and indirect effects through adolescent self-esteem. Further multilevel structural equation modeling indicated that class justice climate moderated the effect of parental rejection on adolescent self-esteem. The findings suggest that family and school practice jointly shape adolescents’ social trust. How parents treat their children has a huge influence on the degree to which their children trust other people. In addition, perceived class justice could buffer the harmfulness of negative parental rearing behaviors.     

Emerging Adult Risky Sexual Behavior Predicted by Parental Overprotection: Moderated Mediation Analysis

Parental control behaviors are suggested to be related to emerging adult outcomes, such as risky sexual behavior. Although parental control behaviors are more likely to be considered protective against risky sexual behavior, the relation between parental overprotection and risky sexual behavior is unclear. Furthermore, parental overprotection may influence peer selection and prosocial behaviors in emerging adults, which may in turn influence outcomes of risky sexual behavior, as suggested by primary socialization theory. Thus, the current study investigated the relations among paternal and maternal overprotection, emerging adult peer alienation, and risky sexual behavior, and expanded on these relations by examining gender effects of both parents and children. The sample consisted of 505 participants (228 males and 277 females) ranging in age from 18 to 25 years. Analyses were conducted with AMOS path analysis and indicated that peer alienation mediated the effect between both maternal and paternal perceived overprotection and risky sexual behavior, but more strongly for males, suggesting moderated mediation. Overall, parental overprotection may be protective against risky sexual behavior via pathways that are harmful such as peer alienation, thus recommending research continues to clarify the nuances of these relations.     

Temperament as Risk and Protective Factors in Obesogenic Eating: Relations Among Parent Temperament,Child Temperament,and Child Food Preference and Eating

Children’s food preferences and eating behaviors have implications for their health and weight status, serving as risk or protective factors for obesity. Although parent and child factors influence children’s eating, few studies have examined parent and child temperament simultaneously in relation to child food preference and eating behaviors. The authors addressed this research gap. Participants were 115 ethnically diverse children between 4 and 6?years old and their parents. Measures included parental temperament traits, parental anxiety, child temperament traits, and child food preference and eating behaviors observed using a laboratory procedure. Results show that children preferred candies over grapes, and that aspects of both child and adult temperament were related to child eating behaviors. Child surgency was linked to eating more candies, while child effortful control was linked to eating more grapes. Parent effortful control was related to children’s preference toward grapes. No relations were found between child eating behaviors and child or parent negative affectivity and parental anxiety. Overall, findings suggest that highly impulsive and poorly self-regulated children may be at risk for obesogenic eating habits.     

NR3C1基因多态性及单倍型、父母教养方式对青少年焦虑障碍的影响

NR3C1参与HPA轴调节,与应激相关的身心疾病关系密切。以往针对NR3C1与焦虑障碍的研究基本以成人为考察对象,且大多关注负性生活事件等个体层面环境变量。本研究采用病例-对照设计,以238名青少年为被试(焦虑障碍117人,对照121人),旨在考察NR3C1常见位点rs6191、rs6196、rs41423247的多态性、单倍型以及父母不同类型教养方式对焦虑障碍的影响。结果表明rs6191 GG基因型、rs6196 AA基因型、rs41423247 GG基因型与低焦虑障碍风险相关。父母过多的过度保护与冷漠拒绝、父亲过少的温暖关怀可预测较高的焦虑障碍风险。rs41423247多态性与母亲温暖关怀存在交互作用:rs41423247 GG基因型只在母亲温暖关怀较多时能降低焦虑障碍风险,在母亲温暖关怀较少时与焦虑障碍并无显著相关。此外,rs6191-rs6196-rs41423247构成的单倍型GAG与低焦虑障碍风险显著关联,TGC与高焦虑障碍风险显著关联,且二者与母亲温暖关怀、母亲过度保护分别存在交互作用。未来可采用追踪研究,从表观遗传层面探讨教养方式与NR3C1影响焦虑障碍的内在机制。     

The Relation of Parental Guilt Induction to Child Internalizing Problems When a Caregiver Has a History of Depression

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between parental guilt induction and child internalizing problems in families where a caregiver had experienced depression. A total of 107 families, including 146 children (age 9–15), participated. Child-reported parental guilt induction, as well as three more traditionally studied parenting behaviors (warmth/involvement, monitoring, and discipline), were assessed, as was parent-report of child internalizing problem behavior. Linear Mixed Models Analysis indicated parental guilt induction was positively related to child internalizing problems in the context of the remaining three parenting behaviors. Implications of the findings for prevention and intervention parenting programs are considered.     

中国父母关爱行为的多维度测量研究

运用问卷法,对北京905名中小学生及其父母进行了问卷测量,并用验证性因素分析对父母关爱行为的维度结构进行了检验.数据分析结果表明,与西方研究者所使用的单维度关爱结构不同,中国父母的关爱行为具有多维度结构,除了情感关爱之外,物质关爱(包括行为关爱和饮食关爱两种)也作为独立的维度单独存在.此外,数据分析显示,中国父母在情感关爱和饮食关爱上有较高的水平表现,小学生父母在情感、物质层面上的关爱表现水平要高于中学生父母,父母的情感关爱表现水平与其受教育程度之间存在着正向关联.并且,父母不同维度的关爱行为与不同年龄段及不同性别儿童的发展之间,展现出了不同的关联程度,因此也从另一侧面支持了父母关爱行为的多维度结构.     

父母教养方式影响青少年感恩:心理特权和观点采择的中介作用

本研究以482名中学生为被试,采用问卷法探究父母情感温暖、父母拒绝以及父母过度保护的教养方式、心理特权以及观点采择对青少年感恩的影响机制。结果表明：（1）父母情感温暖显著正向预测青少年感恩,父母拒绝显著负向预测青少年感恩;（2）观点采择在三种父母教养方式与青少年感恩之间起中介作用,心理特权只在父母拒绝和父母过度保护与青少年感恩之间起中介作用。这表明父母教养方式通过观点采择和心理特权的中介作用影响青少年感恩,但是不同的教养方式作用路径不同。     

The prospective relationship between child personality and perceived parenting: Mediation by parental sense of competence

This study examined the prospective relationship between childhood Big Five personality characteristics and perceived parenting in adolescence. In addition, we investigated whether this relationship was mediated by parental sense of competence, and whether associations were different for mothers and fathers. For 274 children, teachers reported on children’s Big Five personality characteristics at Time 1, mothers and fathers reported on their sense of competence at Time 2, and the children (who had now become adolescents) rated their parents’ warmth, overreactivity and psychological control at Time 3. Mediation analysis revealed both direct and indirect effects. No differences in associations were found for perceived parenting of mothers and fathers. This study demonstrates that child personality in late childhood is significantly related to perceived parental warmth, overreactivity and psychological control in adolescence. In addition, parental sense of competence mediates the relationship between child conscientiousness and perceived parental warmth, overreactivity and psychological control.     

Adolescent–parent attachment as a mediator of relations between parenting and adolescent social behavior and wellbeing in China

The purpose of this study was to examine links between parenting dimensions (authoritative parenting, psychological control, and parental authority) and adolescent wellbeing (self‐esteem, autonomy, and peer attachments) as mediated by parent–teen attachment, among Chinese families. The sample included 298 Chinese adolescents, ages 15–18 years (M age = 16.36, SD = .68; 60% female). The mediation model was examined using path analyses (one model with parental authority as overprotection, and one with it as perceived behavioral control). To improve model fit a direct path was added from authoritative parenting to autonomy. Authoritative parenting was positively predictive of attachment, while psychological control and overprotection (but not behavioral control) were negative predictors. In turn, adolescent–parent attachment was positively related to the three outcomes. Lastly, the model paths did not differ by adolescent gender. These findings suggest that parenting behaviors may play a crucial role in adolescent social behaviors and wellbeing via adolescent–parent attachment.     

Anxiety Symptoms in African American Children: Relations with Ethnic Pride,Anxiety Sensitivity,and Parenting

This cross-sectional study examined the relations among children’s ethnic pride, perceived parenting behavior (i.e., parental control, parental acceptance), anxiety sensitivity, and child anxiety symptoms (i.e., physical symptoms, social anxiety symptoms, separation anxiety symptoms, and harm avoidance symptoms) in 266 African American school children (M = 9.98 years old; 55% girls). Structural equation modeling results indicated that high ethnic pride was associated with high parental acceptance. High perceived parental acceptance, in turn, was related to children reporting low levels of social anxiety symptoms and high levels of harm avoidance. In addition, high parental control was related to high anxiety sensitivity. Anxiety sensitivity partially mediated the relation between parental control and separation anxiety symptoms, such that parental control was both directly and indirectly related to separation anxiety symptoms. Parental control was indirectly related to physical symptoms, social anxiety symptoms, and harm avoidance symptoms through its direct link to anxiety sensitivity. The study’s results increment knowledge about factors influencing specific dimensions of anxiety in African American children.     

Parental emotion regulation and preschoolers’ prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline

The potential mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline on the relations of parental emotion regulation strategies to children’s prosocial behavior were examined in this study. Sixty-four parents of preschoolers (50% girls) completed questionnaires assessing their own regulation practices (i.e., cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression), parenting behaviors (i.e., parental warmth/nurturance, inductive discipline), and children’s prosocial behavior (voluntary behavior intended to benefit another). The authors hypothesized that cognitive reappraisal would be positively and expressive suppression would be negatively related to parenting behaviors and children’s prosocial behavior. They further hypothesized that parental warmth and inductive discipline would mediate the relations between parents’ own regulation strategies and children’s prosocial behavior. Results demonstrated that parental cognitive reappraisal was positively associated with warmth, and expressive suppression was negatively associated with inductive discipline and children’s prosocial behavior. Parental warmth, but not inductive discipline, mediated the relations between cognitive reappraisal and children’s prosocial behavior. The results highlight adults’ own regulatory strategies as predictors of socialization behaviors and the potential processes for socialization of children’s moral emotions and positive social development.