Fear of victimization in Mexico

The aim of this study was to explore the influence on Mexican citizens of several variables that have been reported as being important in the literature on fear of victimization. Sociodemographic variables such as gender, age group and socioeconomic level, together with perceived risk of victimization, perceived seriousness in the face of different acts, experienced victimizations and perception of control of violence and crime are included among these variables. One hundred and eighty-one people were interviewed in a cross-sectional field study. Multiple regression analyses were carried out in three fear of victimization dimensions: personal, property and general situations. On the whole, the findings confirm the influence of the aforesaid variables. Being a woman, feeling at risk of being the object of violent attacks and the seriousness with which moderately violent acts are perceived were some of the major variables considered to predict fear of victimization.     

Street Youths′ Fear of Violent Crime

Utilizing a sample of 300 street youths the article examines the roles, perceptions of control, depression, prior victimization, criminal behavior, peer crime and victimization, homelessness, and violent subcultural values play in the perception of violent victimization risk and the fear of violent crime. Results suggest that previous victimization and peers’ victimization along with depression and an external locus of control increases perceptions of victimization risk for violent crime. Younger street youths also perceived greater victimization risk. Further, females and minority respondents have higher levels of fear of violent victimization. Levels of fear of violent crime are also predicted by previous violent victimization, depression, and an external locus of control. In contrast, social support and violent subcultural values were associated with lower levels of fear. Findings are discussed in terms of extending theory to help understand perceptions of victimization risk and fear of crime.     

Public Unstructured Socializing and the Code of the Street: Predicting Violent Delinquency and Victimization

Using longitudinal survey and space–time budget data from adolescents in the Netherlands, this study examines whether the code of the street affects violent delinquency and victimization, and whether these effects vary by lifestyle. Values similar to the code (i.e., conflict positioning) were related to higher risk for violent delinquency; this relationship was stronger when involvement in public unstructured socializing was high. No relationship was found between these values and victimization. The findings suggest a nuanced relationship between the code of the street and violent delinquency and speak to the code of the street theory’s applicability outside the United States.     

恐惧学习的发展认知神经机制研究回顾与展望

恐惧可以帮助个体快速地评估危险情景,并调动生理和行为反应来应对危险刺激。恐惧发展始于婴儿时期,神经回路表现为杏仁核未参与恐惧反应,但杏仁核功能连接可以预测早期恐惧反应;发展到童年期的恐惧学习特点为安全学习不足和过度泛化,其根源是负责辨别刺激的海马还处于发育中;进入青春期恐惧加工主要特征是由于前额叶发育较晚导致的消退能力弱。恐惧虽有益于人类生存,但恐惧异常会引发焦虑障碍,本文从恐惧的习得、消退和泛化三个阶段,对比了焦虑与健康青少年的恐惧学习差异。最后,文章从增加婴儿时期研究、创新青少年恐惧研究范式和开发安全有效的干预手段三个方面对未来研究提出展望,以期进一步推动恐惧研究的发展。     

The Credibility of Newspapers and Fear of Crime

It was hypothesized that the effect of a fear-arousing newspaper article about crime on fear of crime and concern about crime as a societal problem is dependent on source (newspaper) credibility. In an experimental study, participants were presented with an article on street robberies, ostensibly published in a more credible newspaper or in a less credible newspaper, whereas a control group did not read any article. As predicted, it was found that the article's effect on fear of robbery, fear of crime in general, and concern about robbery as a societal problem was fully dependent on source credibility. Further, women reported more fear of robbery and fear of crime in general than did men.     

Parity and disparity among three measures of fear of crime: A research note

Research on fear of crime often concerns problems associated with measuring fear of crime. Most of the literature in this area critiques “global measures,” which are the most commonly used, and suggests movement to more specific measures of fear of crime. Although much has been said about the use of alternative measures of fear, seldom has research provided comparative analyses of the alternative measures. Using a conceptual model based on previous research, the present study illustrates the differences among findings using three measures of fear of crime: global fear, fear of property crime, and fear of violent crime. This is achieved by employing each of the three measures of fear as the dependent variable in identical models. Comparing the results, the parity and disparity of these measures are demonstrated. The results suggest that conflicting findings from previous research may be a consequence of the types of measures used in the analyses. Thus, it is theoretically important to understand what dimensions of fear are being measured by our operational procedures.     

Friendly fire: Longitudinal effects of exposure to violent video games on aggressive behavior in adolescent friendship dyads

Research on gaming effects has focused on adolescence, a developmental period in which peer relationships become increasingly salient. However, the impact of peers on the effects of violent gaming on adolescents has been understudied. This study examined whether adolescents’ exposure to violent video games predicted their own and their friend's aggression one year later. Among 705 gaming adolescents, 141 dyads were identified based on reciprocated best friend nominations (73.8% male, M_age = 13.98). Actor‐Partner Interdependence Models indicated that adolescent males’ (but not females’) exposure to violent games positively predicted the aggression of their best friend 1 year later. This effect appeared regardless of whether the friends played video games together or not. The study illustrates the importance of peers in the association between violent gaming and aggression.     

A Longitudinal Examination of the Moderating Influence of Peer and Parental Socialization on Alcohol-Related Social Media Self-Effects Among Late Adolescents

ABSTRACT

This study is the first to empirically and longitudinally demonstrate that alcohol-related social media self-effects may occur via attitudes, and that the strength of this association is dependent on peers and parents. A 2-wave panel study with a 1-year interval (N = 1006) among late adolescents (age 16–20 at baseline) showed that especially individuals whose peers and parents engaged in alcohol-positive socialization behaviors, held more positive alcohol-related attitudes one year later when they shared alcohol-related self-presentations on social networking sites (SNS). The strength of the alcohol-related social media self-effect was dampened when peers and parents engaged in more negative alcohol-related socialization behaviors. Overall, these results do not only provide support for the idea that some individuals can affect themselves through displaying certain content on SNS, they also suggest that peers and parents continue to play a socializing role, even when adolescents transition into emerging adulthood.     

Socio-Demographic Correlates of Fear of Crime and the Social Context of Contemporary Urban China

Previous research in the West has established major socio-demographic correlates of fear of crime. The interpretation of these correlates is typically based on the concept of physical or social vulnerability of individuals. These correlates are implicitly regarded as invariant to social or community contexts, reflecting universal human behavioral patterns. The present study argues that social change may alter patterns of perceptions associated with fear among socio-demographic groups, thus affecting socio-demographic correlates of fear of crime. We explore how social changes in China have created a generational gap that influences the effects of age and education on fear of crime. The study finds that, in contrast with the well-established patterns in Western communities, the young and educated exhibit a higher level of fear of crime in urban China than their counterparts. The study also finds that consistent with Western literature, females are fearful and that personal victimization experience increases the level of fear. We discuss the social and community processes that produce these interesting patterns.     

The Effect of Neighborhood Recorded Crime on Fear: Does Neighborhood Social Context Matter?

A number of individual and neighborhood‐level factors may influence the relationship between recorded crime in one’s neighborhood and fear of crime. Understanding these factors may assist in reducing fear, which has been associated with poorer physical and mental health. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the effect of recorded crime rates on fear differs based on the neighborhood social context (social fragmentation) using hierarchical regression modelling, with separate analyses by crime type. Recorded crimes (2008–2010) and national (New Zealand) survey data were used. Higher crime in a neighborhood was associated with higher fear of crime, with only small effect size differences in feelings of fear by recorded type of crime. However, when stratified, the associations between violent and drug/alcohol crimes and fear of crime were larger for those living in highly fragmented neighborhoods compared with less fragmented neighborhoods. Efforts to alleviate fear of crime should focus on the broader neighborhood social context in which these feelings are espoused.     

邻里环境、父母监控和不良同伴交往对青少年问题行为的影响

父母监控和不良同伴交往是影响青少年问题行为的重要因素,同时这种影响又离不开其所处邻里环境的共同作用。本研究通过对2个区县7所学校47个班2188名初一学生及其家长的问卷调查,探讨了邻里环境指标、父母监控和不良同伴交往影响青少年问题行为的路径。结果发现：（1）邻里犯罪能够直接预测青少年的问题行为;同时,邻里犯罪、邻里凝聚与混乱还能够通过父母监控和不良同伴交往为中介,进而影响青少年问题行为;（2）在纳入邻里环境影响条件下,父母监控与不良同伴交往对于青少年问题行为的影响具有显著的交互作用;随着父母监控的提高,不良同伴交往对青少年问题行为的影响减小;（3）对于男孩而言,邻里犯罪对问题行为、父母监控对问题行为、不良同伴交往对问题行为的预测作用大于女孩。     

Social Capital and Fear of Crime in Adolescence: A Multilevel Study

Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine the relationships between social capital (at the individual, the neighborhood, and the regional levels) and adolescents' fear of crime, while controlling for the main individual (sociodemographics, television viewing, and bullying victimization), neighborhood (neighborhood size and aggregated victimization), and regional (crime rate and level of urbanization) variables. Data were analyzed using a three‐level model based on 22,639 15.7‐year‐old (SD = 0.67) students nested within 1081 neighborhoods and 19 Italian regions. The findings revealed that individual and contextual measures of social capital, modeled at the individual, neighborhood, and regional levels simultaneously, showed negative associations with adolescents' fear of crime. Males and participants with higher family affluence were less likely to feel fear of crime, whereas victimization, both at the individual and neighborhood levels, had a positive association with fear of crime. Strengths, limitations, and potential applications of the study are discussed.     

Gender and projective imagination of threat in achievement and affiliation situations

In a study by Pollak and Gilligan (1982) where fantasies of violence were seen as indicative of perception of danger, women responded with more violent imagery to situations of achievement, whereas men responded with more violent imagery to affiliation situations. This indicates gender differences in motivational needs, which corresponds to modern gender development theories (e.g., Chodorow, 1978). In the present studies, the hypotheses that women fear achievement situations whereas men fear situations of affiliation were tested on Swedish samples totaling 44 men and 47 women. In Study 1, the hypothesis that violent imagery correlates with affiliation themes in the stories written by men was partly supported, whereas the hypothesis that violent imagery would be highly correlated with achievement themes in the stories written by women was not confirmed. In Study 2, no support was obtained for the hypotheses. In sum, contrary to previous studies, no substantial support was obtained for the hypothesis that women connect violent imagery with achievement situations, whereas some evidence was found for the hypothesis that men construe danger as arising from affiliation situations. The greater incidence of violence in men’s fantasy reported in previous studies was not supported in either of the two studies. The results are discussed in the context of cross-cultural differences.     

Childhood Trauma,Criminogenic Social Schemas,and Violent Crime

ABSTRACT

Utilizing a sample of 400 homeless street youth, the study draws on the social schematic theory of crime to examine if childhood trauma (physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse) is linked to the development of a criminogenic knowledge structure (CKS) that mediates its relationship with violence. Results indicate childhood trauma is directly associated with the CKS. They also show that it is indirectly related through violent peers. The CKS in turn is directly linked to violence as are childhood trauma and violent peers. The CKS also mediates the relationship childhood trauma and violent peers have with violence. Violent peers likewise mediate the association between childhood trauma and violence. The link between childhood trauma and violence is also serially mediated through violent peers and the CKS. Findings suggest the social schematic theory offers a valuable explanation for the link between childhood trauma and violence.     

Connections Between Violent Television Exposure and Adolescent Risk Taking

This study utilized a survey to assess television viewing and risk-taking behavior in 717 adolescents (age 11-22). Results indicated that, among adolescents, there is a link between exposure to violent television in the form of violent drama, realistic crime shows and contact sports and participation in various forms of risk taking: problem drinking, drinking and driving, delinquency (vandalizing, trespassing, truancy), reckless driving, and drug use. However, the relationship between exposure to various forms of violent television content and risk-taking behavior varies somewhat. Specifically, exposure to realistic crime shows and exposure to contact sports is positively related to risk taking; whereas, exposure to violent drama is negatively related to risk-taking behavior Predictions are made and findings discussed in terms of problem behavior theory. Implications for health messages targeting adolescents are discussed.     

Fear of crime and community concerns: Mediating effect of risk and pragmatic fear

This study investigates the relationship between community concerns (i.e., perceived crime, incivilities, and infrastructure) and fear of crime (FOC) while examining the mediating role of risk of victimisation and pragmatic fear. Gender and ethnic differences were also explored. Data were collected using a proportionate multistage random sample of 3,003 participants from a southern Caribbean island in 2015. The following self‐reported measures were used: risk of victimisation and FOC scales, a general (noncrime) fear scale measuring pragmatic fear, and a community concern scale. Data were analysed using path analysis, Sobel tests, and multiple group analysis. Findings revealed that perceived crime and incivilities significantly predicted FOC, whereas infrastructure was insignificant as a direct predictor. Females had higher FOC, and among ethnic groups, Indo‐Trinidadians had the highest FOC than Afro‐Trinidadians and Mixed participants. Risk of victimisation and pragmatic fear had significant mediating effects on community concerns and FOC. Findings are discussed in the context of the social psychology of social disorganisation and previous research.     

The callousness pathway to severe violent delinquency

Children and adolescents who exhibit a callous interpersonal style seem to be at risk for developing severe forms of violent behavior. Theoretical models suggest that children with low levels of temperamental fearfulness may be at increased risk for developing callous traits because they are relatively unaffected by punishment. This study examines hypotheses about the callousness pathway to severe violent delinquency in a cross‐sectional sample of 169 (97=males, 72=females) adjudicated adolescents. Structural equation modeling is used to test mediation models regarding the relation between temperamental fear, punishment concern, callousness, and severe violent delinquency. The findings of the study indicate that the relation between low levels of temperamental fear and increased callousness is mediated by a lack of concern about being punished for aggressive acts. Although low levels of fear and punishment concern were both related to increased levels of severe violent delinquency, increased levels of callousness mediated these relations. All findings remained significant after controlling for the potential confounds of gender, race, and social desirability. The results provide a heuristic for understanding the callousness pathway to severe violent behavior in youth. However, longitudinal investigations replicating these results are necessary before firm conclusions can be drawn. Aggr. Behav. 32:590–598, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Fear of success in dating couples

A study of 91 college-age dating couples explored the relationship between women's fear of success and characteristics of their boyfriends. No relationship was found between women's fear of success and any of seven measures of men's sex-role attitudes. Boyfriends of women with high fear of success were more advanced in school and scored higher on SAT math than other men, but did not differ in college grades or SAT verbal scores. There was a tendency for women high in fear of success to anticipate problems in their relationship due to differences in intelligence or to their own desire for independence. It is suggested that boyfriends do not affect the strength of women's underlying motive to avoid success but can arouse the motive in specific situations. There was also a lack of relationship between women's fear of success and measures of their own sex-role attitudes and achievement.This research was supported by a doctoral dissertation grant from the Department of Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University, to the author; and by a National Science Foundation grant to Zick Rubin, Harvard University. Special thanks are due Zick Rubin, Matina Horner, Joseph Pleck, and Charles T. Hill for their important help in this research.     

Fear of the drunk driver: Analysis of an emergent social problem

This paper analyzes public perceptions of drunk driving with respect to risk of being victimized, seriousness of the offense, and fear of being victimized. This is based on a state‐wide survey of Louisiana driver's license holders. Compared to other crimes, even murder and rape, it was found that drunk driving ranked highest in its fear invoking quality. An argument is made that this phenomenon should be interpreted from a theoretical standpoint viewing the crimi‐nalization process as a form of collective behavior. Implications for understanding fear of crime as a function of perceived risk and seriousness are discussed, and the implications of the findings for understanding of further legislation and policy action against drunk driving is examined.     

Neighborhood violent crime and adolescent relationship aggression

Research has shown that neighborhoods play a role in the etiology of violence. However, few adolescent relationship aggression (ARA) studies have objective measures of violent neighborhoods. Drawing on a nationally representative sample of youth, this study examines the association between ARA and local levels of violent crime (measured using geocoded Uniform Crime Report data from each of the youths’ residential neighborhoods). Study analyses are based on survey data from 723 youth (ages 10–18) in current or recent dating relationships (351 males and 372 females) in the Survey on Teen Relationships and Intimate Violence (STRiV), a national representative household panel survey exploring interpersonal violence and related aggression among adolescents. About 19% of the sample reported ARA victimization in their most recent dating relationship (ARA perpetration was 17%). Neighborhood violent crime in the study (males living in 86.9 and females 99.8) was slightly lower than the national average of 100. With a broad national sample, 40% non-Whites, hypotheses guided by theories of neighborhood influence were tested. The study did not find an association between neighborhood violent crime and ARA victimization and perpetration, controlling for key demographic factors. The results, for a broad range of high- and low-crime neighborhoods, suggest that neighborhood violence does not seem to affect individual rates of ARA. The results suggest the ARA victimization and perpetration are perhaps ubiquitous and found both in low and high violent crime neighborhoods, suggesting that addressing local violent crime rates alone does not seem to be a path to also reducing ARA.