Body image in bulimic,dieting, and normal females

The present investigation examined body-size estimation and overvaluation of a thin shape in bulimic females, females having been obese as adults who later lost weight, females with no history of obesity who were dieting, and females with no history of obesity as adults and not currently dieting. Each subject was presented with a set of seven silhouettes, one having been drawn from the subject's actual photograph and the remaining silhouettes representing 2.5, 5, and 7.5% increases and decreases in the size of certain body areas of the original figure. Subjects selected both their actual size and their ideal size. In addition, objective raters selected an ideal size for each subject. The hypotheses that bulimics would overestimate their size or overvalue an ultrathin body size as compared with other females were not supported. A history of childhood obesity appears to influence significantly body-size overestimation. Finally, the hypothesis that bulimics would appear more dissatisfied with their body image was not supported, with the three groups currently dieting appearing equally dissatisfied with their shape.The authors greatly appreciate the assistance of the graphic artist, Susan Meier.     

Parental Support and Adolescent Motivation for Dieting: The Self-Determination Theory Perspective

This article focuses on parents’ role in overweight adolescents’ motivation to diet and successful weight loss. The study employed Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as the theoretical framework (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2011). Ninety-nine participants (ages 20–30) who had been overweight during adolescence according to their Body Mass Index (BMI mean = 25, SD = 1.6), completed retrospective questionnaires about their motivation to diet and their parents’ behavior in the context of dieting. Findings from a structural equation modeling analysis suggested that participants who viewed their parents’ as more need-supportive demonstrated more autonomous motivation to diet, which, in turn, contributed to their successful weight loss. The findings highlight the importance of parental support of adolescents’ psychological needs in the quality of their motivation to diet. This is an important insight for parents and professionals who aim to encourage more constructive parent involvement in adolescents’ dieting and well-being.     

Effects of dietary restraint, obesity, and gender on holiday eating behavior and weight gain

This investigation evaluated the impact of dietary restraint, relative weight, and gender on holiday eating behavior and weight gain. 65 Ss (31 men and 34 women) completed detailed food records for the 2 days before, the 4 days during, and the 2 days after the Thanksgiving weekend. Results indicated increased eating during the Thanksgiving holiday, with men eating more than women and the obese eating less than the nonobese. There was also a significant Total Restraint X Weight X Time interaction, with unrestrained normal-weight subjects behaving similarly to high-restrained overweight subjects over time. There was also a highly reliable Total Restraint X Sex X Time interaction. The most striking finding from this interaction was that high-restrained women displayed decreases in their dietary intake over time. Correlational analyses revealed that restraint scores were negatively associated with dietary intake over the 8-day period but were positively associated with weight gain. The implications for dieting, eating behavior, and energy balance are discussed.     

Actual differences and stereotypical perceptions in body image and eating disturbance: A comparison of male and female heterosexual and homosexual samples

In the present study, 32 homosexual males (HMM), 32 homosexual females (HMF), 32 heterosexual males (HTM), and 32 heterosexual females (HTF) completed measures of body image disturbance and concerns with weight and dieting from five different perspectives: self, and typical homosexual male, heterosexual male, heterosexual female, and homosexual female. Participants were primarily Caucasian. Results indicated that, in general, HMMs and HTFs showed greater actual concerns with appearance, weight, and dieting, and were perceived to possess greater body image disturbance and dieting concerns compared to HTMs and HMFs. Subjects also held various stereotypic misperceptions about certain target groups such that HTFs and HMMs were predicted to possess greater body image disturbance and be more concerned with weight and dieting than was actually true. In addition, subjects made accurate predictions about HTMs overall, but were inconsistent in their predictions of HMFs on these measures. Results are discussed in terms of possible variation in the degree of importance these attributes may have for members of these four populations and how such differences may lead to an increased risk for developing eating disorders among heterosexual females and homosexual males.     

The effect of autonomous and controlled motives on eating dysregulation: Implications for individuals classified as underweight,overweight or obese

IntroductionControlled and autonomous motivational factors from self-determination theory have previously been highlighted as key factors in eating regulation. The present study examined controlled motives as an overarching motivational factor in eating dysregulation and examined its effects on dieting behaviour for those who are underweight, overweight or obese.ObjectiveTo examine whether the influence of controlled motives on dieting behaviour would be moderated by body mass index (BMI). Specifically, it was hypothesised that controlled motives would be associated with high levels of dieting behaviour in underweight individuals and low levels of dieting behaviour in individuals classified as overweight or obese.MethodOne hundred and thirty-seven participants completed the measures of height, weight, and motivation and intentions towards watching their diet and subsequently completed a measure of dieting behaviour two weeks later.ResultsModerated regression and simple slopes analyses provided support for the hypothesised effects at underweight, overweight, and obese range BMIs.ConclusionThe effect of controlled motives on dieting behaviour is dependent upon BMI and therefore varies across underweight, overweight, and obese individuals. The implications of controlled motives and external pressures to watch one's diet are discussed.     

Healthy Eating Index-C is compromised among adolescents with body weight concerns, weight loss dieting, and meal skipping

The objective was to describe weight concerns, dieting, and meal skipping of adolescents and to determine associations with the Healthy Eating Index-C (HEI-C). Data, that were collected using the Food Behaviour Questionnaire, revealed that participants (male=810, female=1016) in grades 9/10 reported weight concerns (n=518), dieting (n=364), and skipping breakfast (n=498), lunch (n=252), and/or dinner (n=129). Of those dieting or weight concerned (n=602), 61% were healthy weight and of those not dieting or weight concerned (n=1224), 13% were overweight/obese. The ordinal logistic regression analysis revealed that HEI-C was likely to be rated lower among those weight concerned and dieting (p<.001), and among those that skipped the breakfast meal (p<.001). The current study identified inappropriate weight concerns and dieting that compromised diet quality and has implications for future intervention and policy development.     

Body weight and bulimia as discriminators of psychological characteristics among anorexic, bulimic, and obese women

Bulimic women from underweight (n = 20), normal-weight (n = 31), and overweight (n = 22) categories were compared with restrictor anorexics (n = 20), normal controls (n = 31), and obese subjects (n = 22). Each subject was administered the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Semantic Differential Potency Scale. Bulimic women in all 3 weight categories exhibited greater psychopathology, more external locus of control, lower self-esteem, and lower sense of personal effectiveness than nonbulimic women at similar weight levels. The highest psychopathology, lowest self-esteem, and most external locus of control were found among the underweight bulimic women. Significant differences between bulimic women of different weight levels suggest the need for some modification of treatment approaches depending on the bulimic women's weight level.     

Life Satisfaction, Dieting Behavior, and Weight Perceptions among College Students

This study examined the relationships among perceived life satisfaction, perceptions of body weight, and dieting behaviors among 522 college students. Adjusted multiple logistic regression analyses and multivariate models constructed separately were utilized for this study. Perceptions of underweight and extreme worry over weight were significantly associated with dissatisfaction with life for both males and females (p < 0.01). However, vomiting; perceptions of overweight; binge eating behavior; extreme worry over binge eating behavior; and engaging in binge eating behavior for more than one year were significantly related to dissatisfaction with life for only females (p < 0.01). In addition, both males and females were less likely to self-identify problematic disordered eating, with males being particularly less likely to report concern over extreme dieting behaviors. Results suggest that carefully designed educational and intervention efforts for college students with eating disorders must take gender differences into account. Programs for males may need to differ from those for females in terms of recruitment, intervention integrity, and evaluation considerations.

Gender differences in the accuracy of self-reported weight

To investigate gender as a possible moderator of the validity of self-reported weight data in studies of body image and eating disorders, the discrepancies between reported weights and actual weights were examined in a sample of 186 college students, 90 males and 96 females. Ninety-four percent of the students were Anglo-American, and 6% were African-American, Asian-American, or Hispanic. In comparison to male students, female students underreported their weight to a significantly greater degree. Generally, use of self-reported weight, rather than actual weight, would result in more subjects classified as normal weight or underweight and fewer classified as overweight, using standard methods of classifying individuals into weight categories. And consistent with previous research, normal-weight females perceived themselves as overweight while normal-weight males were more likely to perceive themselves as underweight. Implications for further research on gender differences in eating problems and body image are discussed.To whom reprint requests should be addressed at Department of Psychology, 210 McAlester Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211.     

Assessment of self and others during treatment for anorexia nervosa

Abstract

Repertory grids were used to compare a group of anorexic women (n = 12) with normal-weight (n = 12) and dieting (n = 10) control groups. Anorexics differed from both control groups in their perceptions of themselves and others. The constructs used were more meaningful to anorexics than to either control group. The way in which anorexics saw themselves differed from the way in which clinicians have indicated in the literature that they see their anorexic patients. Some constructs adopted a differential meaning and relevance for observer and observed when applied to the anorexic condition. The discrepancies between internally defined and externally imposed interpretations of construct meaning may help to explain why resistance to treatment and high relapse rates are encountered in anorexic women.     

Computer-assisted dieting: Effects of a randomised controlled intervention

In this pilot study, the effects of two computer-assisted dieting (CAD) interventions on weight loss and blood chemistry were examined among overweight and obese adults. Participants (91 community members, average age 42.6 years) were randomly assigned to CAD-only (a single-session introduction and provision of a dieting software, n = 30), CAD plus an additional four-session self-management group training (CAD+G, n = 31) and a waitlist control group whose members were randomised into the two interventions at the 3-month follow-up (n = 30). A three (group)-by-two (time) repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant group by time interaction during the initial 3-month period. However, the two intervention groups combined showed a significant, though moderate weight loss relative to the control group. Further, although a general improvement was found with regard to the lipid panel results during the first 3 months of the trial, the treatment by time interaction was not significant. A comparison of the developments in the two intervention groups during the 3- to 6-month follow-up time period revealed a tendency towards greater weight regain in the CAD-only condition. The evidence suggests that CAD supports initial weight loss; however, additional self-management training might be necessary to support maintenance.     

Group evaluations as self-group distancing: Ingroup typicality moderates evaluative intergroup bias in stigmatized groups

Outgroup favoritism among members of stigmatized groups can be seen as a form of self-group distancing. We examined how intergroup evaluations in stigmatized groups vary as a function of ingroup typicality. In Studies 1 and 2, Black participants (N = 125,915; N = 766) more strongly preferred light-skinned or White relative to dark-skinned or Black individuals the lighter their own skin tone. In Study 3, overweight participants (N = 147,540) more strongly preferred normal-weight relative to overweight individuals the lower their own body weight. In Study 4, participants with disabilities (N = 35,058) more strongly preferred non-disabled relative to disabled individuals the less visible they judged their own disability. Relationships between ingroup typicality and intergroup evaluations were at least partially mediated by ingroup identification (Studies 2 and 3). A meta-analysis across studies yielded an average effect size of r = .12. Furthermore, higher ingroup typicality was related to both ingroup and outgroup evaluations. We discuss ingroup typicality as an individual constraint to self-group distancing among stigmatized group members and its relation to intergroup evaluations.     

Bulimia,dietary restraint,and concern for dieting

The concept of dietary restraint has recently been used to explain binge-eating in dieters. It has been proposed that the violation of various restraint rules typically leads to hinging in individuals exhibiting high dietary restraint. This study examined the role of dietary restraint in a clinical sample of bulimics. After eating a preload to break dietary restraint, bulimic binge-eaters (those who binge but do not purge) were found to eat significantly more than bulimics who binged and purged (bulimia nervosa) and significantly more than normals. In addition, purging bulimics were found to have more concern about dieting than binge-eaters, while normals were found to have less concern about dieting and less anxiety about eating than both bulimic groups. These data suggest that the psychopathology of bulimia nervosa and bulimia (binge-eating) may be substantially different. It was proposed that the most distinguishing characteristic may be the preoccupation with dieting, weight, and body size, which is more extreme in bulimia nervosa.     

An assessment of appraisal,anxiety, coping,and procrastination during an examination period

High School students responded to an inventory which included dispositional measures of procrastination and social evaluation trait anxiety. Subsequently, and 7 days prior to their first examination (Stage 1), each of the 40 female and 23 male students completed measures of state anxiety, perception of the stressor situation, and ways of coping, all with regard to their approaching exam period. These judgments were repeated 1 day prior to their first examination (Stage 2), and again 5 days after their last examination (Stage 3). Correlational analyses indicated that threat and harm perceptions were highly positively related to state anxiety, whereas challenge and gain were moderately and negatively related. State anxiety was linked to emotion-focused coping, but was independent of problem-focused coping. In an analysis of variance, high procrastination, high trait anxious subjects felt the least challenged at Stage 1. In a ‘maverick’, post hoc analysis, high procrastinators were more likely than low procrastinators at each stage to promise themselves ‘that things will be different next time’. Discussion included an assessment of the need for specificity when using the Ways of Coping (Folkman and Lazarus, 1985) scale.     

Association Between Body Mass Index and Motor Competence in Santal Children of Purulia District,India

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between body mass index and motor competence in Santal children 5–12 years old. A total of 816 Santal children were studied. Children's adiposity status was assessed by body mass index (BMI) for age z-score based on World Health Organization reference data. Motor competence was measured using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Competence (BOT-2). There was no significant difference in mean BMI z-score between Santal boys (0.13 ± 0.07) and girls (?0.14 ± 0.07). Healthy weight (HW) children scored higher (p < .05) in some individual motor subtests (bilateral competence, balance, running speed and agility, upper limb competence, and strength) and in total BOT-2 score (p < .05) compared with scores for underweight (UW) and overweight (OW) children. Nonlinear regression analysis showed that BMI is a significant independent predictor of motor competence (p < .01). Motor competence showed a curvilinear relationship with BMI-z-score, with the lowest point motor scores in strength and upper limb competence (p < .05) for both UW and OW children compared to HW children who scored highest. The results also indicated that gross motor skills, but not fine motor skills, were poorer among children who were UW or OW compared with HW children.     

Gender differences in social consequences of perceived overweight in the United States and Australia

This study investigated attitudes about body weight and appearance in a group of young adults. Undergraduate psychology students at the Flinders University of South Australia and at the University of Vermont were asked about their weight and dieting, consciousness about their body, the degree to which their weight had interfered with social activities, their perceptions about the causes of obseity, and their stereotypes about fat and thin men and women. Although 20% of the sample was overweight, 50% of subjects perceived themselves to be overweight to some degree. As expected, weight was a much greater issue for women, who felt more overweight, dieted more, expressed more body consciousness, and reported that weight had interfered more with social activities than did men. Also as expected, Vermont students reported greater frequency of dieting, more concern about weight, and more body consciousness than did students in Australia. Finally, men and women in both cultures stereotyped obese targets significantly more negatively than they did nonobese targets. The results indicate excessive and maladaptive concerns with weight in general, and among women and U.S. students in particular.     

Symptoms,blood-pressure information and mood effects on symptom recall

Abstract

After completion of an illness symptom checklist (PILL) covering the previous three months, 97 nor-motensives were allocated to either experimental (false pressor feedback, n=42), or information control (accurate pressor feedback, n = 55), groups. The median reported symptom score divided high from low symptom subjects. All were given standard cuff blood pressure (BP) assessment and were normotensive. However, experimental subjects were misinformed that their BP was raised while information control subjects were told their BP was normal. Subsequently, subjects completed the state anxiety form of the State-Trait Personality Inventory, the PILL, and were asked about their belief of the ascribed BP label (normo/hypertensive) and then any perceived causal relationship between their BP and symptoms. Experimental subjects had significantly higher anxiety scores but no change in symptom recall after pressor feedback, whereas control subjects showed lower anxiety scores and decreases in symptom recall.

A post hoc treatment control (no pressor information) group (n = 20) excluded effects of BP labeling on post-BP scores, and a post hoc symptom control group (n = 55) ensured that symptom levels were representative of the normal population. The majority of subjects in both groups rejected any association between BP labels and symptoms. Data are discussed in the light of Leventhal's models of illness representation.     

Cognitive specificity and affective confounding in social anxiety and dysphoria in children

Cognitive features of social anxiety and dysphoria were examined with a design that allowed for evaluation of each state alone and in combination. From a community sample of 211 8 to 12 year olds, four groups of children were defined based on previous researcher's criteria: mixed (high socially anxious-dysphoric;n= 14), socially anxious (high socially anxiousnondysphoric;n= 14), dysphoric (non-socially anxious-dysphoric;n= 13), and control (non-socially anxious-nondysphoric;n= 14). The negative cognitive triad and negative cognitions pertaining to the self were associated with both dysphoria and social anxiety. Both dysphoric and socially anxious groups reported significantly more cognitive distortions than the control group, yet cognitive distortions of overgeneralizing and personalizing were specific to social anxiety and not dysphoria. Both dysphoric and socially anxious groups reported significantly more depressive cognitions than the control group, and evidence of cognitive content-specificity emerged only for anxiety, although there was some evidence for depressive content-specificity in the mother's ratings. The mixed group was the most dysfunctional on all of the cognitive measures. This study provided some evidence of cognitive-specificity as well as the confounding between the affective states of dysphoria and social anxiety. Methodological, theoretical, and treatment implications are highlighted.     

Towards Individual Profile Analysis for Obesity Treatment: Actual and Self-Judged Knowledge of Nutrition and Dieting and Perceived Self-Efficacy

Abstract

This paper describes the first stage in the development of a diagnostic instrument for the individualization of obesity treatment, focused on cognitive and motivational factors likely to be relevant for successful and maintained weight reduction. A 145-item questionnaire was completed by 44 overweight subjects. The results indicate that most subjects were convinced that their knowledge of nutritional basics and physiology of dieting was sufficient or high, while in most cases it was actually low. Most subjects had strong self-percepts of efficacy. Another conspicuous finding was the great interindividual variability, frequently reflecting a lack of correspondence between the actual knowledge level, the self-judgement of it, and the perceived self-efficacy. The results support the idea of a diagnostic instrument yielding individual patient profiles including the factors mentioned above.