Legacies of War: Asian American Women and War Trauma

ABSTRACT

Although Asian Americans are diverse in many ways, such as language, culture, ethnicity, religion, generational status, and more, many share a common experience: that of having experienced war first hand or being progeny of war survivors. World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Cambodian genocide, along with centuries of oppressive and authoritarian rule, have brought experiences of trauma, directly and historically, to the lives of many Asians. Subsequent experiences of migration and resettlement, as well as life in the United States as an ethnic minority, have also compounded the layers of oppression for many Asian Americans. Sexism in our cultures of origin, as well as sexism in the U.S., represents additional realities and traumas faced by Asian American women. In this article, we explore the experiences of war and subsequent traumas in the lives of Asian American women. We present a brief review of the current state of mental health as it relates to the experiences of war trauma, with the goal of providing a crucial contextual backdrop for our review of the best practices in mental health services to Asian American women. We review some of the best practices and conclude with a narrative reflection based on our own involvement in a small professional women’s group that yielded insights, discoveries, healing, and empowerment from the legacy of war trauma.     

Empowering the silent ranks: The Southeast Asian experience

Southeast Asians are among the fastest growing immigrant groups in the United States, yet the rich and varied Southeast Asian newcomer experiences remain underrepresented within the community psychology literature Much of this experience raises complex questions about the concept of empowerment. In this paper we summarize recent published work on the Southeast Asian experience. We will show that three themes have dominated extant work: (1) the importance of understanding the cultural dimensions of Southeast Asian experiences, including the ways in which broad differences between American and Southeast Asian culture call into question the suitability of Western approaches to intervention within the Southeast Asian community; (2) the importance of understanding the trauma and hardship of the immigration experience which accompanied the forced migration of many in the Southeast Asian community; and (3) the urgency of adopting effective strategies for addressing the pressing needs with this new immigrant community. Each of these themes potentially lends itself to an empowerment focus, but we will see that much of the work has been pursued in ways that are inconsistent with an empowerment perspective. We end the discussion with a consideration of what community psychology might gain from a deeper understanding of the Southeast Asian immigrant experience and we suggest possible areas for disciplinary involvement in Southeast Asian empowerment efforts.     

Intersectional cosmopolitanism: Muslim women’s engagement with polygamy on Malaysian and Indonesian screens

ABSTRACT

This article interrogates how the diverse realities of Muslim women fray the concept of ‘Muslim cosmopolitanism’ in Southeast Asia. By comparing how Malaysian Muslim women interpret polygamy in Malaysian and Indonesian screens, this article problematises the idea of a unified cosmopolitanism experienced by Muslims from the Malay world. Based on findings from interviews with 25 educated women, this article shows that media representations of polygamy and Muslim femininity can differ even between two Southeast Asian countries sharing common gendered and religious practices. It argues that the women’s understanding of polygamy is based on the intertwinement of their ethnic, gendered and classed subjectivities that are not necessarily informed by their religious beliefs per se but rather by the broader socio-political contexts in which they live. Through this embodiment of intersectional cosmopolitanism, they not only disrupt existing notions of ‘Muslim cosmopolitanism’ but highlight the heterogeneous experiences of Muslims within Southeast Asia.     

Contextualizing Acculturation: Gender, Family, and Community Reception Influences on Asian Immigrant Mental Health

This article investigates differences in the mental health among male and female immigrants from an ecological perspective, testing the influences of both individual acculturation domains and social contexts. Data from the first nationally representative psychiatric survey of immigrant Asians in the US is used (N = 1,583). These data demonstrate the importance of understanding acculturation domains (e.g., individual differences in English proficiency, ethnic identity, and time in the US), within the social contexts of family, community, and neighborhood. Results demonstrate that among immigrant Asian women, the association between family conflict and mental health problems is stronger for those with higher ethnic identity; among immigrant Asian men, community reception (e.g., everyday discrimination) was more highly associated with increases in mental health symptoms among those with poor English fluency. Findings suggest that both individual domains of acculturation and social context measures contribute to immigrant mental health, and that it is important to consider these relationships within the context of gender.     

Asian Indian Women: Domestic Violence,Mental Health,and Sites of Resilience

ABSTRACT

Culture is foundational to human experiences. As such, different cultural contexts and systems create different realities and lived experiences. Psychological knowledge and experiences within this context are then subject to socio-cultural systems, historical events, the distribution of economic and political power, and privileged positions of people within the system. This article highlights Asian Indian women’s lived experiences with domestic violence and their ways of healing. In particular, we present personal, political, social, and cultural factors that contribute to vulnerability and resilience in Indian women both in India and within the diaspora and note the role of community as an important indigenous source of healing.     

TEACHING GENDER ISSUES IN ASIAN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY

This article presents a set of pedagogical approaches and suggested topics and materials for teaching gender issues in Asian American psychology. The experiences of contemporary Asian American women and men must be understood with an appreciation for the larger social, political, and historical contexts in which they live. Thus, several topics designed to "set the stage" for exploration of gender issues are presented. Central issues in teaching gender-related topics within Asian American psychology are discussed under the categories of gender roles, gender stereotypes, and gender differences. Instructors are encouraged to use multimedia resources and interdisciplinary approaches to promote critical thinking about the complex interactions of ethnicity, gender, and the larger sociocultural forces that shape Asian American women and men's psychological experiences.     

The Effects of Contact with Asians and Asian Americans on White American College Students: Attitudes, Awareness of Racial Discrimination, and Psychological Adjustment

On the basis of acculturation theory, explicating mutual influences between different cultural or ethnic groups coming into contact, this study focused "on the other side of acculturation" theory by examining the effects of intercultural contact with Asians and Asian Americans on the psychosocial experiences of White American college students. Participants (N = 315), undergraduates attending a public university located within the state of Massachusetts, completed a survey that assessed demographic and personal characteristics, acculturation (extent of intercultural contact with Asian people and Asian cultures), attitudes towards Asians and Asian Americans, awareness of institutional discrimination and blatant racial issues, and psychological distress. Results indicated that White American students' intercultural contact with Asians and Asian Americans contributed significant variance to the prediction of their attitudes towards this ethnic group and awareness of discrimination and racial issues, but not to psychological distress. This study provides implications for understanding mutual acculturative influences between different ethnic groups in the United States.     

Terror as Usual: The Role of the Model Minority Myth in Asian American Women’s Suicidality

ABSTRACT

This article examines the influence of the model minority myth on the formation of suicidal tendencies among Asian American women. These women experience fractured realities under the myth as a form of everyday trauma, or “terror as usual,” which may influence their suicidal thinking or attempts. Using interview data collected from 44 Asian American women suicide survivors, this study employs narrative analyses of the interviews, drawing from the theoretical frameworks of women of color feminism, critical race studies, postmodern psychology, and critical anthropology. The first part of this article deconstructs the model minority thesis as a problematic framework for understanding Asian American achievement. The second part examines how these pressures are experienced by Asian American women as destructive material and psychic constraints. Specifically, the model minority myth contributes to Asian American women’s suicidality in three major ways: (a) the pressure to succeed creates unbearable stress for individuals as they try to live up to the stereotypical image of Asian American success; (b) the dissimulation of the myth as a social fact influences Asian American women to internalize model minority expectations and thus blame themselves if they are unable to succeed; and (c) the image of model success contributes to Asian American women becoming over-looked in the distribution of needed help and resources, further exacerbating their suicidal conditions. The article concludes with a discussion of implications of this study for both clinical and nonclinical practices needed to create social conditions for Asian American women’s mental wellness.     

Conceptualizing cultural and gendered identities in psychological therapies

This paper addresses implications for psychological therapies and practices of recognizing the varieties of ways ‘race' and gender intersect and impact on therapeutic relationships. We illustrate how ‘race' and gender have either eluded analysis or been treated in oversimplified ways that disallow their interchange and varieties of forms, and impoverish the recognition and process of therapeutic change. Debates about ‘race' and gender in psychotherapy are situated within more general discussions about theorizing whiteness as a normalized cultural absence. This is used to inform how ethnic minorities in Britain, and specifically minority women, have been represented in (and omitted from) the psychiatric and psychotherapeutic literature. Common claims about cultural specificity (or its converse, universality) in psychological therapies, the grounds on which they are offered and their discursive consequences are evaluated. The case is made for therapy as an inevitably intercultural enterprise, while also cautioning against some prevalent misconceptions of intercultural approaches. The final substantive section develops the conceptual arguments proposed in relation to debates about culturally relevant and appropriate models in psychological therapies, including a critical commentary on the uses of gender, cultural and racial ‘matching'. Finally, implications for the training and practices of mental health professionals are discussed.     

Indigenous Women of the Amazon Forest: The Woman Shaman of the Yawanawa Tribe

ABSTRACT

Among the most diverse and indigenous areas of the world is Latin America, specifically the Amazon river basin and its rain forests. Indigenous tribes and indigenous healing practices from these areas have recently gained more attention and popularity. However, less is known about experiences of tribal women related to indigenous practices, including the long-standing legacy of patriarchal and Christian colonization. This contribution offers the voice of one of the few known women-shamans in the area: Hushahu of the Yawanawa tribe. This first full public interview in a Western publication provides not only a perspective on indigenous healing, but also on experiences of indigenous tribal women in light of their history of colonization and oppression.     

Racial and Sexual Objectification of Asian American Women: Associations with Trauma Symptomatology,Body Image Concerns,and Disordered Eating

ABSTRACT

Sexism and racism often imbue Asian American women’s socialization experiences. Operating from an objectification theory framework, the present article (a) examines the conceptual relevance of racial and sexual objectification in describing Asian American women’s oppressive experiences, (b) reviews empirical studies linking racial and sexual objectification with Asian American women’s mental health issues, specifically in the areas of trauma symptomatology, body image concerns, and disordered eating, (c) offers critiques of existing research and points to directions for future research, and (d) discusses clinical implications for therapy work with Asian American women based on available literature. In essence, the present review highlights how Asian American women may experience body image concerns, disordered eating, and trauma symptomatology through processes ethnoculturally and socioculturally distinct to them via experiences of racial and sexual objectification. This review calls for a more nuanced and precise understanding of Asian American women’s racial and sexual objectification experiences and associated mental health difficulties. This understanding can only occur through increased empirical research and clinical practice, as informed by feminist scholarship situated in a culturally expanded objectification framework.     

An Asian perspective on relationship and marriage education

The goal of this article is to provide couple therapists and relationship educators with information to enhance the cultural relevance of their work with Asian populations. Because of the rapid social, economic, cultural, and gender role changes, the various Asian interpretations of the institution of marriage are undergoing major transformation. This article describes the general trends in marriage in several Asian nations, with a focus on the swiftly rising divorce rates and changing cultural attitudes to marriage, and discusses current relationship education initiatives in these nations. Finally, based on my experiences working with Asian populations, I present a few humble insights regarding adaptation of marriage education to render it more culturally appropriate for Asians.     

Witches,Charlatans, and Old Wives: Critical Perspectives on History of Women’s Indigenous Knowledge

ABSTRACT

Although women have been central to cultural healing practices historically, their participation in the production of indigenous knowledge remains marginal. This contribution traces the history of indigenous healing traditions among women, both in Western and non-Western cultures. Specific attention is given to the history of patriarchal oppression, including witch-trials and the branding of non-Western indigenous healers as witches during European colonization. Utilizing a feminist post-colonial lens, this work seeks to examine how the history of persecution, oppression, and gendered violence has shaped attitudes toward indigenous practices by women as well as women’s own engagement in indigenous ways of healing and knowing.     

Intersectionality of Race/Ethnicity and Gender Among Women of Color and White Women

Theoretical writings on intersectionality have long emphasized the unique ways women of color experience race/ethnicity and gender, particularly compared to White women; however, little empirical evidence exists in support of this claim. This mixed-methods study adds to the empirical base by comparing and contrasting these experiences among women of color and White women. In a sample of 47 women of color and 18 White women, there were significant racial/ethnic differences in terms of (a) the perceived connection of race/ethnicity and gender, (b) the social contexts in which gender becomes salient, and (c) the meaningfulness of the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender. The findings lend empirical support for intersectionality as a useful psychological framework for understanding multiple social identities.     

The Cultural Influences on Help-seeking Among a National Sample of Victimized Latino Women

The current study examined the influence of legal status and cultural variables (i.e., acculturation, gender role ideology and religious coping) on the formal and informal help-seeking efforts of Latino women who experienced interpersonal victimization. The sample was drawn from the Sexual Assault Among Latinas (SALAS) Study that surveyed 2,000 self-identified adult Latino women. The random digit dial methodology employed in high-density Latino neighborhoods resulted in a cooperation rate of 53.7%. Women who experienced lifetime victimization (n = 714) reported help-seeking efforts in response to their most distressful victimization event that occurred in the US. Approximately one-third of the women reported formal help-seeking and about 70% of women reported informal help-seeking. Help-seeking responses were generally not predicted by the cultural factors measured, with some exceptions. Anglo orientation and negative religious coping increased the likelihood of formal help-seeking. Positive religious coping, masculine gender role and Anglo acculturation increased the likelihood of specific forms of informal help-seeking. Latino orientation decreased the likelihood of talking to a sibling. Overall, these findings reinforce the importance of bilingual culturally competent services as cultural factors shape the ways in which women respond to victimization either formally or within their social networks.     

Religion and Spirituality among American Indian,South Asian,Black, Hispanic/Latina,and White Women in the Study on Stress,Spirituality, and Health

Social scientists have increasingly recognized the lack of diversity in survey research on American religion, resulting in a dearth of data on religion and spirituality (R/S) in understudied racial and ethnic groups. At the same time, epidemiological studies have increasingly diversified their racial and ethnic representation, but have collected few R/S measures to date. With a particular focus on American Indian and South Asian women (in addition to Blacks, Hispanic/Latinas, and white women), this study introduces a new effort among religion and epidemiology researchers, the Study on Stress, Spirituality, and Health. This multicohort study provides some of the first estimates of R/S beliefs and practices among American Indians and U.S. South Asians, and offers new insight into salient beliefs and practices of diverse racial/ethnic and religious communities.     

THE RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER AND ETHNICITY TO SELF-SILENCING AND DEPRESSION AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS

This study expands on the initial work with the Silencing the Self Scale (STSS; Jack, 1991) by presenting data using a more diverse, nonclinical sample. Included were both men and women ( n = 604) who were African American, Asian, Caucasian, and Hispanic. It was expected that women would be more self-silencing than men, and that there would be ethnic differences. There were three principal findings: (a) men were more self-silencing than were women on the STSS; (b) there was a main effect for ethnicity on the STSS, with Asians expressing the highest levels of self-silencing; and (c) there was a positive correlation between self-silencing and depression for all ethnic/gender groups.     

Body Type Preferences in Asian and Caucasian College Students

While there is an extensive literature on gender differences in body image, little has focused on ethnic group differences in men's body image. College students ( N = 466) from a prestigious New England university indicated their current and ideal figures. Compared to Caucasians (N = 289), Asians (N = 92) reported smaller current figures. Both Caucasian and Asian women rated their current figure as larger than their ideal. Caucasian males reported no discrepancy between their current and ideal figures. However, Asian males rated their current figures as smaller than ideal. The effect of ethnicity on body satisfaction depended upon gender. For women, the ideal was thinner than current figure regardless of actual size, producing a discrepancy between current and ideal figures for both Caucasian and Asian women. Conversely, Asian and Caucasian men identified a similar ideal, producing a discrepancy between current and ideal figures only for Asian men.     

The Bernreuter Personality Inventory as a Measure of Student Adjustment

Abstract

In this study salience, importance, and multidimensional aspects of spontaneous social identities were examined. A Social Identity Survey was developed and administered to an ethnically diverse sample of American undergraduate students. Freely generated, social identities were rank ordered for importance and rated along four conceptually-derived dimensions: emotion, evaluation, importance, and stability. Results showed pattern differences among three groups of highly salient social identities: (a) gender, religion, and ethnicity; (b) academic major and student; and (c) hobbies and athletics. Ethnic differences suggest that mainstream Americans attributed less importance to the gender and ethnic identities in comparison with Asians and Hispanics.