The effects of verbal feedback and listener type on the speech of preschool children

The present study simultaneously assessed the relative contributions of feedback indicative of comprehension and the apparent age of the listener, either an adult or a doll which resembled a toddler, in a 2 (listeners) × 2 (types of feedback, C = comprehension, NC = noncomprehension) design. Two groups of children, a 3-year-old (N = 13, 7 boys, 6 girls) and a 5-year-old group (N = 12, 6 boys, 6 girls) were asked to tell stories to both the adult and doll in both C and NC conditions. The doll was constructed with an internal speaker such that it could actually carry on a conversation with the children. The conversations were taped, transcribed, and scored for mean length of utterance (MLU), transitional utterance length to each C and NC signal, and the proportion of child questions, exact self-repetitions, repetition and reductions, and rephrases/elaborations. The data analysis revealed that all children appropriately modified the length of their utterances (MLU) in the doll condition but not in the adult condition, indicating that they were sensitive to both the feedback and the nature of their listeners. Older children were more likely than younger children, and girls more likely than boys to adjust the length of their utterances appropriately to each type of feedback, slightly increasing the length of the subsequent utterance to a C signal and decreasing the length to an NC signal. The younger children were also more likely to respond with a simple repetition to NC cues from the adult.     

The effects of eye position and expectation on sound localization

Ss who are exposed to a sound coming from straight ahead, but who turn their eyes 20 deg to the side toward a visible speaker during the exposure period and expect to hear the sound coming from the visible source, show a shift in localization of the sound up to a maximum of about 9 deg. Ss who only turn their eyes 20 deg to the side during the exposure period show a smaller but significant shift in sound localization, while Ss who do not turn their eyes, but are led to expect that the sound will appear to come from a visible loudspeaker 20 deg to the side, show no significant shift. Comparison of test results before and after the exposure period, with eyes directed straight ahead and no visible speaker present, shows the presence of a localization aftereffect for those experimental groups that showed a significant localization shift during the exposure period. Sounds are localized a few degrees to the side of their physical location in the same direction as the shift in localization during the exposure period. Further experiments show that part, but not all, of the shift in localization during the exposure period can be understood in terms of a shift in perceived head direction. The localization aftereffects are shown not to be due to change in physical or perceived eye or head position.     

The effects of speech production and speech comprehension on simulated driving performance

We performed two experiments comparing the effects of speech production and speech comprehension on simulated driving performance. In both experiments, participants completed a speech task and a simulated driving task under single‐ and dual‐task conditions, with language materials matched for linguistic complexity. In Experiment 1, concurrent production and comprehension resulted in more variable velocity compared to driving alone. Experiment 2 replicated these effects in a more difficult simulated driving environment, with participants showing larger and more variable headway times when speaking or listening while driving than when just driving. In both experiments, concurrent production yielded better control of lane position relative to single‐task performance; concurrent comprehension had little impact on control of lane position. On all other measures, production and comprehension had very similar effects on driving. The results show, in line with previous work, that there are detrimental consequences for driving of concurrent language use. Our findings imply that these detrimental consequences may be roughly the same whether drivers are producing speech or comprehending it. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of feedback consistency and feedback favorability on self-perceived task competence and perceived feedback accuracy

The present study, employing a 2 × 2 true-experimental design and regression analyses assessed the main and interactive effects of feedback consistency (consistent vs inconsistent), and feedback favorability (acceptable vs superior), for feedback given at two time periods on measures of perceived feedback accuracy and self-perceived task competence. Among the study's findings were that (a) the perceived accuracy of feedback at the second period was a function of the favorability of feedback received at the first time period, (b) the self-perceived task competence levels of subjects were jointly determined by the favorability of feedback received at both time periods, and (c) the perceived accuracy of feedback was a function of its consistency. Organizational implications of the study's results are offered.     

Reinforcing effects of prerecorded words and delayed speech feedback on the verbal behavior of a neologistic schizophrenic

The possibility of using prerecorded words and 2-sec. delayed speech feedback as reinforcement in the reconditioning of intelligible verbal responses in a chronic, neologistic schizophrenic patient was investigated. A test situation was devised which involved daily presentation of 100 stimulus word-picture cards to elicit verbal responses. The results indicated that both singly presented prerecorded words and delayed speech feedback apparently strengthened correct and intelligible verbal responding.     

The effects of feedback self-consistency, therapist status, and attitude toward therapy on reaction to personality feedback

Individuals' reactions to interpersonal feedback may depend on characteristics of the feedback and the feedback source. The present authors examined the effects of experimentally manipulated personality feedback that they--in the guise of therapists--e-mailed to participants on the degree of their acceptance of the feedback. Consistent with Self-Verification Theory (W. B. Swann Jr., 1987), participants accepted feedback that was consistent with their self-views more readily than they did feedback that was inconsistent with their self-views. Furthermore, the authors found main effects for therapist's status and participant's attitude toward therapy. Significant interactions showed effects in which high-status therapists and positive client attitudes increased acceptance of self-inconsistent feedback, effects that were only partially mediated by clients' perceptions of therapist competence. The present results indicate the possibility that participants may be susceptible to self-concept change or to self-fulfilling prophecy effects in therapy when they have a positive attitude toward therapy or are working with a high-status therapist.     

An interpretation of research on feedback interruption in speech

The controversial question of the scope of sensory control in the voluntary motor patterns involved in speech is examined by reviewing studies in which the auditory, tactile, and proprioceptive feedback channels have been distorted or interrupted. The author makes a case for open loop control of well-learned speech patterns under normal circumstances. The concept of internal feedback is introduced as a possible control system of skilled speech, whereas response feedback and external feedback are viewed as necessary for children developing speech or adults learning new speech patterns.     

The power of powerless speech: The effects of speech style and task interdependence on status conferral

Two studies examine the effects of speech styles and task interdependence on status conferral judgments. In both studies, participants were exposed to an individual who used either a powerful or powerless speech style in a low or high task interdependence group, and made judgments about the amount of status to confer to the individual. When task interdependence was low, participants conferred more status to powerful speakers, whereas when interdependence was high, participants conferred more status to powerless speakers. Furthermore, Study 2 demonstrated that speech styles influenced trait inferences about the speaker (agency and communality), but these traits were weighted differently in status conferral judgments across groups. These findings provide insight into both the relationship between observed behaviors and status positions and the decision process underlying status conferral judgments.     

The effect of fast speech rate on stuttering frequency during delayed auditory feedback

Delayed auditory feedback (DAF) has been documented to improve fluency in those who stutter. The increased fluency has been attributed to the slowed speech rate induced by DAF, but recent experiments have suggested that increasing the speech rate may also decrease stuttering under DAF. This investigation described the effect of combining a fast speech rate and DAF on the fluency of four people who stutter. Fluency of the two mildly dysfluent subjects was the same for both no DAF and DAF conditions at normal and at fast oral reading rates. In contrast, the two severely dysfluent subjects improved in fluency from the no DAF to the DAF conditions. They were found to be dysfluent at both normal and fast oral reading rates without DAF. The results of the study point to the need for further research on the relationship between speech rate and stuttering frequency under conditions of DAF and no DAF. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: Readers will learn about and be able to describe how the frequency of stuttering is affected by: (1) speech rates; (2) DAF; and (3) how stuttering severity influences such effects.     

I: Effect of delayed auditory feedback on speech and keytapping

The effects of delayed auditory feedback (DAF) on the performance of simple speech and keytapping tasks were compared. In the first experiment, each of the fourteen young adult subjects was asked to repeat the speech sound “b” in groups of three sounds. The subject heard his undelayed speech sounds through earphones. Under the delay condition, the speech sounds were delayed 244 millisec. before being returned to the subject's earphones. In the second experiment, each of the same subjects was asked to tap on a key in groups of three taps. The subjects heard an undelayed click through earphones each time they tapped on the key. Under the delay condition, the clicks were delayed 244 millisec. before being returned to the earphones. Graphic recordings were made of the time and intensity characteristics of tapping under both conditions.

The changes which occurred in speech and keytapping under DAF were qualitatively the same and consisted of increases in intensity and unit-to-unit time of both taps and speech sounds. When performing under DAF, the subjects also exhibited a tendency to repeat more sounds or to tap more times than had been requested. The percentage of change in intensity and time characteristics for speech and keytapping performances which occurred under DAF were not significantly different for the two motor systems. The amount of change in speech performance under DAF did not correlate significantly with the amount of change in keytapping performance.     

The effects of video feedback on running form

Correct running form is important for injury prevention; as such, correct form promotes continued engagement in running as a long-term form of exercise. Researchers have shown video feedback to be an effective strategy to improve athletic form for a variety of sports, but it has not been evaluated in any behavior analytic research as a method for improving running form. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of video feedback to improve running form for regular runners. During baseline, each participant was video recorded while running without any feedback (verbal or video). During intervention, the researcher recorded the participant, then showed them the video and provided feedback on correct or incorrect form, according to a 9-step task analysis. Results show that all three participants achieved 100% correct steps on the task analysis when video feedback was used to maintain their form during follow-up.     

The expectation of guilt and resistance to temptation

Children's expectations about the emotions that surround a moral transgression were examined. In experiment 1, children aged 4-6 years and 8-9 years listened to a story about a child who resisted but then yielded to the temptation to take a sweet without permission. In line with earlier findings (Nunner-Winkler and Sodian, 1988), older children were more likely than younger children to expect the wrongdoer to feel pleased at resisting, but to feel bad after yielding to, temptation. In experiment 2, the relation between expectations of emotion and actual resistance to temptation was studied. Children aged 5-6 years again made judgements about a story character who eventually yielded to temptation. Their own resistance to temptation was assessed by means of a cheating task: children were given an opportunity to cheat by peeking during the experimenter's absence. Children who did not peek were more likely to attribute morally oriented feelings to the story protagonist. The results suggest that children who readily anticipate the emotional consequences of wrongdoing are more likely to resist the temptation to transgress.     

The effects of behavioural and cultural expectation cues on the perception of social episodes

The effects of behavioural and cultural expectation cues on the perception of a dyadic encounter were studied, using realistic videotaped interactions as stimuli. Intimate and non-intimate non-verbal interactions and intimate and non-intimate episode definitions were combined in a 2 × 2 design and presented to subjects who rated both information sources separately (N = 20) as well as in congruent and incongruent combinations (N = 48). The contribution of each of these two cues to ratings of the combined episodes was analysed by Frijda's (1969) average relative shift technique, and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) procedure. Results indicated that behavioural cues dominate perceptions, but this dominance is reduced in incongruent cue combinations, suggesting a weighted averaging strategy. Perceptions of the relationship between the interactants were more resistant to behaviour cue dominance than perceptions of the interaction. An analysis of open-ended accounts by subjects substantiated these findings. The results suggest that cultural expectations of interaction episodes have a salient and non-obvious effect on social perception.     

员工授权期望的效应及其理论机制

以往对领导授权行为的研究大都以领导为中心, 探讨领导授权行为的有效性。随着追随理论的兴起, 越来越多的研究强调从员工视角探讨领导有效性。期望在组织管理中扮演重要角色, 员工授权期望是指员工形成的有关组织中的领导在权力授予方面应尽职责与义务的规范性认知。在系统梳理员工授权期望概念与测量的基础上, 分别从角色设定理论、领导分类理论、期望落差理论梳理了员工授权期望的作用效果与研究结论, 最后从基于内隐领导理论的变量测量、相关理论的机制探讨、追随理论的模型扩展、期望管理的前因探索等方面提出了未来研究的展望。