Nonconscious acquisition of information.

The authors review and summarize evidence for the process of acquisition of information outside of conscious awareness (covariations, nonconscious indirect and interactive inferences, self-perpetuation of procedural knowledge). Data indicate that as compared with consciously controlled cognition, the nonconscious information-acquisition processes are not only much faster but are also structurally more sophisticated, in that they are capable of efficient processing of multidimensional and interactive relations between variables. Those mechanisms of nonconscious acquisition of information provide a major channel for the development of procedural knowledge that is indispensable for such important aspects of cognitive functioning as encoding and interpretation of stimuli and the triggering of emotional reactions.     

Nonconscious perception, conscious awareness and attention

Because it is unclear how a nonconscious stimulus is cognitively processed, there is uncertainty concerning variables that modulate the processing. In this context recent findings of a set of neuroimaging experiments are important. These findings suggest that conscious and nonconscious stimuli activate same areas of the brain during performance of a similar task. Further, different areas are activated when a task is performed with or without awareness of processing. It appears that the neural network involved in cognitive processing depends on the awareness of processing rather than awareness of perception. Since conscious and nonconscious cognitive processing use separate neural networks, each processing is modulated by different variables. Attention modulates most conscious cognitive processing and most, but not all, nonconscious processing is attention dependent. Nonconscious tasks that require attentional resources, with or without conscious awareness, are processed using the attention dependent system. Further, because attention dependent and attention independent tasks are processed by separate neural networks, the cognitive processing and modulating variables can be understood better if cognitive tasks are defined as attention dependent or attention independent, rather than conscious or nonconscious.     

Processing alternative explanations of behavior: correction or integration?

Three experiments investigated how activation of knowledge about situational forces affects discounting in dispositional inference tasks. Each experiment varied a different knowledge activation factor--salience, accessibility, or specificity of situational information. In addition, all 3 experiments varied situational demands and cognitive load. The results showed that cognitive load eliminated discounting when situational information was low in salience, accessibility, or specificity. However, when situational information was more salient, accessible, or specific, it produced strong discounting effects even when perceivers were under cognitive load. These results are discussed in terms of correction and integration models of dispositional inferences from behavior.     

无意识目标：激活与追求

目标自动激活模型认为,目标是行为满意状态或结果在个体头脑中的表征,它能够通过相关情境自动激活。无意识目标的激活方式有语义激活、工具激活和人际激活。无意识目标追求与有意识目标追求在目标实现、目标投射和动机特征方面相似,但其行为产生机制有所不同。未来研究应该对无意识目标的机制及其具体应用进行深入的探讨     

Don’t make me angry,you wouldn’t like me when I’m angry: Volitional choices to act or inhibit are modulated by subliminal perception of emotional faces

Volitional action and self-control—feelings of acting according to one’s own intentions and in being control of one’s own actions—are fundamental aspects of human conscious experience. However, it is unknown whether high-level cognitive control mechanisms are affected by socially salient but nonconscious emotional cues. In this study, we manipulated free choice decisions to act or withhold an action by subliminally presenting emotional faces: In a novel version of the Go/NoGo paradigm, participants made speeded button-press responses to Go targets, withheld responses to NoGo targets, and made spontaneous, free choices to execute or withhold the response for Choice targets. Before each target, we presented emotional faces, backwards masked to render them nonconscious. In Intentional trials, subliminal angry faces made participants more likely to voluntarily withhold the action, whereas fearful and happy faces had no effects. In a second experiment, the faces were made supraliminal, which eliminated the effects of angry faces on volitional choices. A third experiment measured neural correlates of the effects of subliminal angry faces on intentional choice using EEG. After replicating the behavioural results found in Experiment 1, we identified a frontal-midline theta component—associated with cognitive control processes—which is present for volitional decisions, and is modulated by subliminal angry faces. This suggests a mechanism whereby subliminally presented “threat” stimuli affect conscious control processes. In summary, nonconscious perception of angry faces increases choices to inhibit, and subliminal influences on volitional action are deep seated and ecologically embedded.     

Consciousness of targets during the attentional blink: a gradual or all-or-none dimension?

Models of consciousness differ in whether they predict a gradual change or a discontinuous transition between nonconscious and conscious perception. Sergent and Dehaene (Psychological Science, 15, 720-728, 2004) asked subjects to rate on a continuous scale the subjective visibility of target words presented during an attentional blink. They found that these words were either detected as well as targets outside the attentional-blink period or not detected at all, and interpreted these results as support for a discontinuous transition between nonconscious and conscious processing. We present results from 4 attentional-blink experiments showing that this all-or-none rating pattern disappears with the use of an alternative measure of consciousness (post-decision wagering) and a more difficult identification task. Instead, under these circumstances, subjects used the consciousness rating scales in a continuous fashion. These results are more consistent with models that assume a gradual change between nonconscious and conscious perception during the attentional blink.     

Nonconscious goal pursuit: Acting in an explanatory vacuum

Nonconsciously activated goals and consciously set goals produce the same outcomes by engaging similar psychological processes (Bargh, 1990; Gollwitzer & Bargh, 2005). However, nonconscious and conscious goal pursuit may have different effects on subsequent affect if goal pursuit affords an explanation, as nonconscious goal pursuit occurs in an explanatory vacuum (i.e. cannot be readily attributed to the respective goal intention). We compared self-reported affect after nonconscious versus conscious goal pursuit that either violated or conformed to a prevailing social norm. When goal-directed behavior did not require an explanation (was norm-conforming), affective experiences did not differ after nonconscious and conscious goal pursuit. However, when goal-directed behavior required an explanation (was norm-violating), nonconscious goal pursuit induced more negative affect than conscious goal pursuit.     

The Role of Spatial Attention in Nonconscious Processing: A Comparison of Face and Nonface Stimuli

ABSTRACT— Recent findings from the masked priming paradigm have revealed a surprising influence of higher-level cognitive systems (i.e., attention) on nonconscious cognitive processes. These data have effectively undermined the long-standing assumption in cognitive science that nonconscious processes are carried out independently of attention and have quickly led to the opposite view that attention is a prerequisite for nonconscious processes. Here we present evidence for a middle position by showing that the dependence of nonconscious processes on attention varies with the type of information to be processed. Specifically, we found that nonconsciously perceived faces engaged cognitive processes regardless of attention, whereas nonface stimuli engaged cognitive processes only when attended. These qualitatively different patterns suggest two distinct processing routes: one that is modulated by visual attention and one that is not.     

A Symbolic Model of the Nonconscious Acquisition of Information

This article presents counter evidence against Smolensky's theory that human intuitive/nonconscious congnitive processes can only be accurately explained in terms of subsymbolic computations carried out in artificial neural networks. We present symbolic learning models of two well-studied, complicated cognitive tasks involving nonconscious acquisition of information: learning production rules and artificial finite state grammars. Our results demonstrate that intuitive learning does not imply subsymbolic computation, and that the already well-established, perceived correlation between “conscious” and “symbolic” on the one hand, and between “nonconscious” and “subsymbolic” on the other, does not exist.     

Attention, intention and domain-specific processing

Many researchers use subliminal priming to investigate domain-specific processing mechanisms, which have classically been defined in terms of their autonomy from other cognitive systems. Surprisingly, recent research has demonstrated that nonconsciously elicited cognitive processes are not independent of attention. By extension, these findings have been used to call into question the autonomy of domain-specific processing mechanisms. By contrast, we argue that the demonstrated modulation of nonconscious cognitive processes by attention occurs at a predomain-specific stage of processing. Thus, although we agree that attention might be a prerequisite of nonconscious processes, we suggest that there is no reason to think that higher-level cognitive systems directly modulate domain-specific processes.     

Disorder-specific Effects of CBT for Anxious and Depressed Youth: A Meta-analysis of Candidate Mediators of Change

The commonalities between anxiety and depression have been discussed before, but few have delineated the potentially different mechanisms through which treatments work for these populations. The current study conducted a comprehensive review of child and adolescent randomized clinical trials that tested cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety or depression. All studies were required to have assessed both treatment outcomes and at least one theory-specific process target, including behavioral, physiological, cognitive, and coping variables. Using a meta-analytic approach, CBT demonstrated positive treatment gains across anxiety, depression, and general functioning outcomes. CBT for anxiety also produced moderate to large effects across behavioral, physiological, cognitive, and coping processes, with behavioral targets demonstrating potentially the greatest change. CBT for depression produced small effects for cognitive processes but nonsignificant effects for behavioral and coping variables. Findings were generally consistent with CB theory but suggest potentially different mediators in the treatment of anxiety and depression. Results are discussed in terms of implications for mechanisms research, theories of change, and treatment development.     

Digit Span and Articulatory Suppression: A Cross-linguistic Comparison

Information Reduction, a performance-enhancing cognitive strategy which develops with practice, is thought to be consciously and abruptly adopted and then applied consistently. Previous investigations used an Alphabet Verification Task where one observation was that not everyone adopts the strategy, but reasons for this are unclear. We demonstrated Information Reduction in three other tasks, confirming that it is not task-specific. Post-testing questionnaires probed verbally expressible knowledge, to gauge conscious awareness of any strategy. Overall, results indicate considerable variation in Information Reduction usage: Some individuals discovered and used the strategy and could verbally express this, others chose not to use it and some appeared to use it without awareness of doing so. Results also indicate that Information Reduction is not consistently applied, suggesting it is less robust than has been proposed. Our results may be better explained by a theory of practice learning which incorporates both data-driven automaticity and top-down controlled processes.     

Cognitive-behavioral approaches to children's problems

Selected issues in theory, research, methodology, assessment, and outcome are briefly discussed in the context of cognitive-behavioral approaches to children's problems. Distinctions between rationalistic and developmental varieties of cognitive approaches are delineated. Different assumptions are explored regarding the function and nature of cognitive processes, the nature and mechanisms of psychological change, and the relationship between cognitive and emotional processes. It is concluded that the empirical status of cognitive-behavioral approaches to children's problems is equivocal. The theoretical status of traditional (rationalistic) cognitive treatments is also challenged, and developmental, process-oriented conceptualizations and research are endorsed as more adequate and promising perspectives in this area.     

Longer is not better: nonconscious overstimulation reverses priming influences under interocular suppression

Previous research has shown that stimuli rendered invisible through masking can be sufficiently processed to induce nonconscious influences and facilitate subsequent recognition. However, masking paradigms are methodologically restricted such that stimuli cannot be presented for longer than a few tens of milliseconds, potentially restricting the strength of nonconscious influences. By adapting a masked face repetition priming paradigm to a recent interocular suppression method, we investigated whether longer periods of invisible prime stimulation lead to larger nonconscious influences on subsequent recognition. Surprisingly, we found that while brief periods of invisible prime stimulation result in classical facilitation priming, long periods of invisible stimulation lead to negative priming influences, reflecting impairment of subsequent recognition. In contrast, when the prime was visible, longer exposure resulted in classical facilitation effects, revealing qualitative differences between conscious and nonconscious processes. Altogether, the present findings reveal the existence of a nonconscious overstimulation cost, as well as an important dissociation between conscious and nonconscious processing.     

无意识工作激励:定义、模型及展望

无意识工作激励是指由外部环境自动诱导出个体努力行为的过程,并且这种自动诱导的过程无法被个体所内省。目前已经被发现的无意识工作激励过程包括自动化评价,无意识行为模仿,态度、特质和刻板印象的激活,以及无意识目标激活等。从内在机制来看,镜像神经元理论可解释无意识行为模仿,无意识行为选择模型可用来解释无意识目标激励。未来应侧重研究无意识工作激励与有意识工作激励的关系,发展新的研究方法,并更深入地探索无意识工作激励的内在机制。     

Blind spots in the search for happiness: Implicit attitudes and nonverbal leakage predict affective forecasting errors

We investigated implicit knowledge and affective forecasting, reasoning that although conscious evaluations are available to people when predicting their future emotional responses, nonconscious evaluations are not. However, these automatically-activated evaluations should contribute to in-the-moment emotional experiences, and thus they should account for misforecasts (i.e., discrepancies between affective forecasts and actual experiences). We conducted two studies to explore affective misforecasts, using food items as stimuli. In Study 1, participants' implicit attitudes (but not their explicit attitudes) predicted misforecasts of food enjoyment, supporting the role of nonconscious evaluations in affective forecasting errors. In Study 2, we examined participants' facial expressions (another index of nonconscious evaluation) upon the presentation of food items, and we found that these nonverbal behaviors predicted affective misforecasts as well. In sum, although nonconscious evaluations are unavailable when anticipating the future, they may contribute to one's in-the-moment experiences and thus serve as blind spots in affective forecasting.     

Interventions to Promote Sun Protection Behaviors: What Do We Know About the Efficacy of Health‐ and Appearance‐based Messages and the Role of Cognitions and Emotions?

Human behavior has been implicated as a critical component in the development of a number of diseases, including skin cancer. More than 85% of all skin cancers are attributed to over‐exposure to the sun, and two primary types of interventions have been utilized to motivate sun protection practices – those that focus on the health consequences (i.e., skin cancer) and those that highlight the negative appearance consequences (i.e., wrinkles and age spots) of sun exposure. Both health‐based and appearance‐based interventions have been demonstrated to increase awareness of sun exposure dangers and of recommended risk reduction behaviors. Much of the literature examining the efficacy of appearance‐based interventions also contains evidence of behavior change in response to such interventions. The role of consciously accessible attitudes and perceptions as mechanisms of behavior change has been extensively examined, and there is evidence that sun protection interventions may promote behavior change in part by altering various health‐related cognitions (e.g., perceived susceptibility to skin damage). However, the role of nonconscious mechanisms in the efficacy of sun protection interventions has received little empirical attention. A growing body of literature, primarily in other health contexts, has demonstrated that behavior is sometimes more strongly predicted by emotions than cognitions, and that processes outside of conscious awareness may affect behavior change. It is suggested that both future sun protection interventions, and health promotion theories in general, could benefit from a thorough examination of the role that emotions and autonomic reactions may play in intervention efficacy.     

Active hippocampus during nonconscious memories

The hippocampal formation is known for its importance in conscious, declarative memory. Here, we report neuroimaging evidence in humans for an additional role of the hippocampal formation in nonconscious memory. We maskedly presented combinations of faces and written professions such that subjects were not aware of them. Nevertheless, the masked presentations activated many of the brain regions that unmasked presentations of these stimuli did. To induce a nonconscious retrieval of the faces and face-associated occupational information, subjects were instructed to view the previously masked faces and to guess the professional category of each person--academic, artist, and workman. Guessing the professional category of previously masked versus new faces activated the left and right hippocampal formation and right perirhinal cortex as well as bilateral fusiform areas and fronto-temporal areas known to mediate the retrieval of semantic information. These activations within the semantic processing system suggest that conceptual knowledge acquired during masking was nonconsciously retrieved. Our data provide clues to an analogous role of the hippocampus in conscious and nonconscious memory.     

创伤后应激障碍的双重表征理论及其进展

创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)的双重表征理论认为创伤引起了可回忆的言语记忆和可回忆的情境记忆两类记忆。这两类记忆能够解释PTSD,比如再现创伤和情绪加工。创伤的情绪加工可能合出现成功完成、慢性加工和过早抑制加工三个结果。最后本文讨论了该理论在研究设计、临床实践和解释实验数据方面的应用。