Investigating the motivational factors influencing drivers intentions to unsafe driving behaviours: Speeding and overtaking violations

Achieving road safety depends on driver attitudes and behaviours in handling the vehicle on roads. The availability of good road, improvement of vehicle designs and drivers experience lead to reduction in crashes but not prevention of crashes. The study aims to predict the drivers’ intentions towards speeding and overtaking violations when under the influence of motivational factors using belief measure of TPB and DBQ variables. To achieve this, questionnaires were randomly administered to a sample of Ghanaian drivers (N = 354) who held valid driving licenses. This study applied regression techniques. The result shows that the components of TPB and DBQ variables were able to predict drivers’ intentions towards speeding and overtaking violations. The study further shows that components of TPB made larger contributions to the prediction of divers’ intentions to speeding and overtaking than the DBQ. Further analysis revealed that, in the prediction of drivers’ intentions, speeding attitude was the most frequent violations compared to overtaking. The drivers tend to involved in overtaking violations when they perceived the driving motivations would enhance the performance of the behaviour. Additionally, control belief has been the strongest predictor of drivers’ intentions under the influence of motivations to speeding and overtaking violations. It appeared that the drivers who intended to involve in speeding and overtaking violations had strong beliefs in the factors and are more likely to violate based on their beliefs. The practical implications of the findings for the development of interventions to promote road safety and positive changes are also discussed.     

The role of emotion in bridging the intention–behaviour gap: The case of sports participation

ProblemPsychological models of sports participation frequently draw on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in order to predict health-behaviour-related intentions. While these models commonly show high predictive power with respect to intention, they often fall short in the prediction of behaviour (the ‘intention–behaviour gap’). The present study contends that integrating emotional processes into TPB can substantially improve the model's predictive power over and above traditional cognitive predictors.MethodIn a longitudinal study structural equation modelling was employed to test a traditional model (based on TPB) and an extended model including emotion associated with the intention to exercise as a mediator variable. A community sample (N = 237) completed a questionnaire measuring the components of a traditional TPB model. Prior to each of 16 expected exercise sessions (over 8 weeks) intention to exercise and emotion associated with the intention were measured.ResultsResults confirmed a substantial increase of 17% in explained variance of exercise frequency and 20% in exercise duration for the extended model. Emotional appraisal of the intention to exercise thus appears to mediate the traditional intention–behaviour relationship, suggesting that emotionally based interventions aimed at increasing sports participation may be helpful.ConclusionIt is concluded that emotion variables should be added to traditional TPB models in order to predict health behaviour more fully.     

Examining normative pressure in the theory of planned behaviour: Impact of gender and passengers on intentions to break the speed limit

This research examined the impact of passenger-type on young people’s responses to a driving scenario about speeding. In the scenarios, the presence, and gender of the passenger were systematically varied. A total of 162 respondents (83 females, 79 males) completed questionnaires containing measures from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and additional variables after reading each of two scenarios. The TPB provided good predictions of intention to speed (45% explained variance) with all TPB variables plus moral norms and past behaviour significant. Males compared to females reported significantly greater normative pressure to speed, less control over not speeding, and less moral norms not to speed. Normative pressure was a stronger predictor of intentions for men compared to women when driving alone. Normative pressure was a stronger predictor of intentions when the passenger was male.     

Examining normative pressure in the theory of planned behaviour: Impact of gender and passengers on intentions to break the speed limit

This research examined the impact of passenger-type on young people’s responses to a driving scenario about speeding. In the scenarios, the presence, and gender of the passenger were systematically varied. A total of 162 respondents (83 females, 79 males) completed questionnaires containing measures from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and additional variables after reading each of two scenarios. The TPB provided good predictions of intention to speed (45% explained variance) with all TPB variables plus moral norms and past behaviour significant. Males compared to females reported significantly greater normative pressure to speed, less control over not speeding, and less moral norms not to speed. Normative pressure was a stronger predictor of intentions for men compared to women when driving alone. Normative pressure was a stronger predictor of intentions when the passenger was male.     

Antecedent variables of intentions to use an autonomous shuttle: Moving beyond TAM and TPB?

IntroductionThe use of autonomous shuttles (AS) seems a promising mobility solution. Technology acceptance model (TAM) and theory of planned behavior (TPB) provide useful a priori frameworks to study AS’ acceptance, but they might arguably benefit from a specific, AS-related adjustment.ObjectiveTo provide a preliminary model of AS’ acceptance based on both laboratory and field data.MethodUndergraduate students (n = 370, study 1) and both the potential and the real AS users (n = 162, study 2) answered surveys concerned with the key TAM, TPB and evidence-based additional variables.ResultsSome of TAM and TPB constructs accounted for 40% of intentions to use an AS while further 13 to 16% were explained systematically by such variables as group norms, affective attitudes and first AS experience.ConclusionSome of TAM and TPB constructs capture substantial proportion of AS’ acceptance while additional social, motivational and experience-related factors should be taken into account.     

Application of the theory of planned behaviour to the prediction of objectively assessed breaking of posted speed limits

In two studies the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) including moral norms, anticipated regret and past behaviour was applied to predicting intention to exceed the posted speed limit across different roads and objectively assessed speeding behaviour. All measures except behaviour were taken by self‐report questionnaires referring to different driving scenarios. The behaviour measures were based on performance in a simulator (Study 1) or unobtrusive on‐road speed camera assessment taken without driver awareness (Study 2) across roads with varying posted speed limits. Results are reported averaged across road types in both studies. In Study 1 (N = 83), 82% of the variance in intentions to speed was explained, with attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control (PBC), moral norms, anticipated regret and past behaviour being significant predictors. A total of 35% of the variance in speed as assessed on a driving simulator was accounted for with intentions, PBC, moral norms and previous accidents being significant predictors. In Study 2 (N = 303), 76% of the variance in intentions to speed was explained with attitudes, moral norms, anticipated regret and past behaviour being significant predictors. A total of 17% of the variance in speed as assessed on‐road was accounted for with intentions and moral norms being significant. Practical implications of the findings for road safety are discussed.     

Attitude,perceived behavioral control,and intention to adopt risky behaviors

The theory of planned behavior (TPB, Ajzen, 1985) has proved its efficiency in predicting different behaviors among road users (Sheeran & Orbell, 2000). The present study examined the TPB factors explaining risk taking among vulnerable road users (e.g., cyclists). We presumed that attitude, social norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) would predict cyclists’ intention to adopt a risky behavior in two traffic contexts considered as risk-conducive (i.e., run the red-light, turn left).Participants (N = 224, M_age = 23.34) filled in an online scenario-based questionnaire describing two traffic situations conducive to risk taking and including measures for cyclists’ intentions to adopt risky behaviors in these specific contexts, TPB factors, and self-perceived efficacy.TPB factors explained 49% and 65% of the variance in the intention to cross the red light, respectively the intention to turn left, with positive attitude and high PBC as the best predictors. Implications of the results were discussed.     

Staying grounded? Applying the theory of planned behaviour to explore motivations to reduce air travel

Air travel has been highlighted as a key environmental behaviour contributing to climate change. Given this, there is a surprising lack of theory-based research aimed at identifying factors that underpin motivation to reduce the number of flights taken. This study explored whether an extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB) model could be usefully applied to identify significant predictors of intentions to reduce the number of flights taken for leisure, holidays or to visit family or friends. Results supported the predictive utility of the TPB; the extended model was able to account for 52% of the variance in intentions over and above past behaviour and socio-demographic variables. Attitudes, subjective norms and behaviour-specific self-identity emerged as significant linear predictors. Findings support the utility of applying the TPB to air travel and suggest key variables which could be targeted in interventions to promote motivation to reduce the number of flights taken.     

Psychological predictors of texting while driving among university students

Although text messaging while driving is illegal in Spain previous research has shown that a substantial proportion of drivers, particularly young drivers, engage in this risky behaviour. The present study set out to investigate the psychological predictors of this behaviour using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). This study also measured the drivers’ perceptions regarding the effectiveness of the ban on mobile phone use while driving, their perceived crash risk, the risk of being fined and the drivers perceived ability to compensate for the distraction caused by reading or writing text messages while driving. Data were collected using an online questionnaire from 1082 university students who were drivers and owned a mobile phone. Attitude and perceived behavioural control significantly predicted the intention to send and read text messages while driving, even after controlling for exposure and demographic variables. Furthermore, intention was found to be a significant predictor of retrospective measures of both sending and reading text messages while driving, as was perceived behavioural control for several of the outcome measures. The present findings provide support for the TPB and also demonstrate the additional contributions that the mobile phone ban and perceived ability to compensate for the distraction had in predicting intentions. In addition, perceived crash risk was positively related to the prediction of intentions to send text messages and the number of messages read in the last week. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

“I would have lost the respect of my friends and family if they knew I had bent the road rules”: Parents,peers, and the perilous behaviour of young drivers

Young novice drivers are at considerable risk of injury on the road. Their behaviour appears vulnerable to the social influence of their parents and friends. The nature and mechanisms of parent and peer influence on young novice driver (16–25 years) behaviour was explored via small group interviews (n = 21) and two surveys (n1 = 1170, n2 = 390) to inform more effective young driver countermeasures. Parental and peer influence occurred in pre-Licence, Learner, and Provisional (intermediate) periods. Pre-Licence and unsupervised Learner drivers reported their parents were less likely to punish risky driving (e.g., speeding). These drivers were more likely to imitate their parents and reported their parents were also risky drivers. Young novice drivers who experienced or expected social punishments from peers, including ‘being told off’ for risky driving, reported less riskiness. Conversely drivers who experienced or expected social rewards such as being ‘cheered on’ by friends – who were also more risky drivers – reported more risky driving including crashes and offences. Interventions enhancing positive influence and curtailing negative influence may improve road safety outcomes not only for young novice drivers, but for all persons who share the road with them. Parent-specific interventions warrant further development and evaluation including: modelling safe driving behaviour by parents; active monitoring of driving during novice licensure; and sharing the family vehicle during the intermediate phase. Peer-targeted interventions including modelling of safe driving behaviour and attitudes; minimisation of social reinforcement and promotion of social sanctions for risky driving also need further development and evaluation.     

Expanding the Affective and Normative Components of the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Meta‐Analysis of Anticipated Affect and Moral Norms

Meta‐analysis was used to determine the predictive validity of anticipated affect and moral norms in the theory of planned behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991 ). Medium‐to‐large sample‐weighted average correlations were obtained. Anticipated affect and moral norms increased the variance explained in intentions by 5% and 3%, respectively, controlling for TPB variables. Intention mediated the influence of both variables on behavior. Moderator analyses showed that younger samples and behaviors with a moral dimension were associated with stronger moral‐norm/intention relations, and anticipated regret was associated with a stronger anticipated‐affect/intention relation. The implications of the findings for the TPB are discussed.     

Examining the effectiveness of physical threats in road safety advertising: The role of the third-person effect,gender, and age

Threatening advertisements have been widely used in the social marketing of road safety. However, despite their popularity and over five decades of research into the fear-persuasion relationship, an unequivocal answer regarding their effectiveness remains unachieved. More contemporary “fear appeal” research has explored the extent other variables moderate this relationship. In this study, the third-person effect was examined to explore its association with the extent male and female drivers reported intentions to adopt the recommendations of two road safety advertisements depicting high physical threats. Drivers (N = 152) first provided responses on pre-exposure future driving intentions, subsequently viewed two advertisements, one anti-speeding and one anti-drink driving, followed by measurement of their perceptions and post-manipulation intentions. The latter measure, post-manipulation intentions, was taken as the level of message acceptance for each advertisement. Results indicated a significant gender difference with females reporting reverse third-person effects (i.e., the messages would have more influence on themselves than others) and males reporting classic third-person effects (i.e., the messages would have more influence on others than themselves). Consistent with such third-person effects, females reported greater intention not to speed and not to drink and drive after being exposed to the advertisements than males. To determine the extent that third-person differential perceptions contributed to explaining variance in post-manipulation intentions, hierarchical regressions were conducted. These regressions revealed that third-person scores significantly contributed to the variance explained in post-manipulation intentions, beyond the contribution of other factors including demographic characteristics, pre-exposure intentions and past behaviour. The theoretical and applied implications of the results are discussed.     

Predicting intentions to text and call while driving using the theory of planned behaviour

There is extensive evidence that using a mobile phone while driving causes degradation in driving performance, and thereby results in reduced safety on the road. The present study examined intentions to use mobile phones while driving using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). A total of 212 Ukrainian drivers (mean age = 35 years SD = 10 years; males = 82%) completed a survey that included measures of the TPB components related to intentions to send or read text messages or to make or receive handheld phone calls across two different scenarios; one where they were running late, and the other when they were not in a hurry. Measures of the frequency of mobile phone use were also collected. The results showed that 63% of the sample reported using a mobile phone while driving at least daily, with the most frequent types of usage being making and answering a phone call with a handheld device. The most consistent predictor of intentions to interact with a mobile phone while driving was having a positive attitude towards doing so. Perceived behavioural control was also significantly and positively associated with mobile phone use while driving, but only a small number of associations were found with subjective norms. Our results suggest that intentions to interact with mobile phones while driving may be context specific.     

Getting mad may not mean getting even: The influence of drivers’ ethical ideologies on driving anger and related behaviour

The current study explored the influence of moral values (measured by ethical ideology) on self-reported driving anger and aggressive driving responses. A convenience sample of drivers aged 17–73 years (n = 280) in Queensland, Australia, completed a self-report survey. Measures included sensation seeking, trait aggression, driving anger, endorsement of aggressive driving responses and ethical ideology (Ethical Position Questionnaire, EPQ). Scores on the two underlying dimensions of the EPQ idealism (highI/lowI) and relativism (highR/lowR) were used to categorise drivers into four ideological groups: Situationists (highI/highR); Absolutists (highI/lowR); Subjectivists (lowI/highR); and Exceptionists (lowI/lowR). Mean aggressive driving scores suggested that exceptionists were significantly more likely to endorse aggressive responses. After accounting for demographic variables, sensation seeking and driving anger, ethical ideological category added significantly, though modestly to the prediction of aggressive driving responses. Patterns in results suggest that those drivers in ideological groups characterised by greater concern to avoid affecting others negatively (i.e. highI, Situationists, Absolutists) may be less likely to endorse aggressive driving responses, even when angry. In contrast, Subjectivists (lowI, HighR), reported the lowest levels of driving anger yet were significantly more likely to endorse aggressive responses. This provides further insight into why high levels of driving anger may not always translate into more aggressive driving.     

Self-regulation versus habit: the influence of self-schema on fruit and vegetable consumption

The aim of this study is to examine the determinants of fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption with the application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the additional variables of self-schema, habit and self-regulation. While it has been shown that those with a healthy-eater self-schema are more likely to carry out their healthy dietary intentions, the underlying processes that influence this relationship have received limited empirical attention. Recent findings on dietary behaviour suggest that self-regulatory ability and habit strength may have dissimilar effects on the intention-behaviour relationship within schematics and non-schematics. Self-report questionnaires regarding F&V consumption cognitions and two tests of self-regulation were administered to 209 university students. One week later, participants completed questionnaires on their behaviour. The TPB significantly predicted intentions and prospective behaviour. Self-schema did not moderate the relationship between intention and behaviour. However, within healthy-eater schematics, those with high intention and high self-regulatory ability were more likely to consume F&V, while within non-schematics, those with low intention and high habit strength were more likely to consume F&V. The findings support the use of the TPB in predicting F&V consumption and the validity of the self-schema distinction. Implications for designing interventions are discussed.