A TALE OF TWO CLIMATES: DIVERSITY CLIMATE FROM SUBORDINATES' AND MANAGERS' PERSPECTIVES AND THEIR ROLE IN STORE UNIT SALES PERFORMANCE

Applying Zohar's (2000) multilevel model of organizational climate, this study assessed the main and interactive effects of subordinates' and managers' diversity climate perspectives on store sales performance. Across 654 store units of a large U.S. retail organization, we observed main effects of subordinate and managerial diversity climates on unit sales percentage change and a significant subordinate × manager diversity climate perspective interaction. The greatest sales growth was found in stores wherein subordinates and management perceived highly pro-diversity climates (positive consistency). In contrast, the lowest sales growth was evident for stores in which both subordinates and managers reported less hospitable diversity climates (negative consistency). Our findings underscore the positive financial ramifications of highly consistent perceptions that diversity is valued in a work context.     

Evaluating Gender Biases on Actual Job Performance of Real People: A Meta‐Analysis1

This study examined gender bias on job performance in work settings where confounding variables (e. g., organizational level, experience, education) were cautiously taken into consideration to ensure fair comparisons. Although previous meta‐analyses examined gender biases on evaluations, findings in tightly controlled laboratory environments may differ from those in highly complicated field studies. We found little evidence of overall gender bias in performance appraisals in nonconfounded field studies. However, there were significant pro‐male biases when only men served as raters. Measure‐specific gender stereotypicality, instead of genera! stereotypicality about the job, produced gender bias in performance appraisal. Masculine measures produced pro‐male bias, and feminine measures produced pro‐female bias.     

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF CAUSAL INFERENCE BETWEEN ROLE PERCEPTIONS, SATISFACTION WITH WORK, PERFORMANCE AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL

Previous research has suggested that organizational level may explain to a significant extent the differential impact of role perceptions (i.e., role ambiguity and role conflict) on employee satisfaction and performance. Causal inferences could not be drawn from these studies because of the predominant use of static correlational methods. In this study, in a hospital setting, a six-month time-lag between data collection periods was used to develop causal inferences. The results supported the hypothesis that role ambiguity was a source of causal inference with satisfaction with work at the higher organizational level, while role conflict was a source of causal inference with satisfaction with work at the lower organizational level. The source and direction of causal influence with respect to role perceptions and performance was supported only at the higher organizational level.     

Vocational and organizational behavior, 1985: A review

This article examined the research in vocational and organizational behavior published during 1985. The review was organized around research themes in vocational behavior (person-environment fit, gender influences, cultural groups, career planning and decision making, and job search and recruitment) as well as behavioral issues in organizational settings (staffing techniques, individual behavior and performance, leadership, reactions to organizational life, career transitions, and work and the quality of life). The review was followed by a global assessment of the literature and several suggestions regarding future research.     

心理资本对员工的工作绩效、组织承诺及组织公民行为的影响

通过对198对直接领导和员工的实证研究,探讨了心理资本及希望、乐观和坚韧性三种积极心理状态与员工的工作绩效、组织承诺和组织公民行为之间的关系。结果表明：在控制了性别和年龄两个人口统计学变量的效应后,员工的希望、乐观和坚韧性三种积极心理状态,都对他们的工作绩效、组织承诺和组织公民行为有积极影响;员工的希望、乐观和坚韧性三者合并而成的心理资本,对他们的工作绩效、组织承诺和组织公民行为有积极影响     

Supported Supervisors Are More Supportive,but Why? A Multilevel Study of Mechanisms and Outcomes

This study examines organizational support theory as it extends to supervisor support by (1) testing two explanations for the relationship between supervisors’ perceived organizational support and their supportive supervision and (2) examining perceived supervisor support in relation to subordinate performance and commitment. Multisource survey data from a correctional facility, with a matched sample of 51 supervisors and 283 subordinates, were collected. Multilevel structural equation modeling was used for analysis. Supervisors were more supportive when they felt supportive treatment was preferred by the organization and less supportive when they felt obligated to help the organization. Perceived supervisor support was associated with subordinate performance and commitment at the subordinate level (i.e., among employees reporting to the same supervisor) but not at the supervisor level (i.e., across supervisor-follower groups). Employees who feel supported by their supervisor perform better and are more committed to their employer. To encourage supervisor support, organizations should both model support to supervisors and communicate the expectation for supervisor support. Supervisors who feel obligated to reciprocate to a supportive organization may be less inclined to support their subordinates. This study examines the prevailing, yet untested, mechanism (felt obligation) used to explain the relationship between supervisor’s perceptions of organizational support and their supportive supervision, as well as an alternative explanation based on social information processing. The study provides a nuanced multilevel analysis of perceived supervisor support as related to subordinate outcomes and extends previous models by including subordinate withdrawal and commitment.     

Justice as a dependent variable: subordinate charisma as a predictor of interpersonal and informational justice perceptions

Research in the organizational justice literature has shown that interpersonal and informational justice are significant predictors of subordinate attitudes and behaviors. However, scholars have neglected to explore whether certain subordinate characteristics might be associated with managers' adherence to interpersonal and informational justice rules. The current authors' study tested a model, inspired by approach-avoidance perspectives (e.g., Gray, 1990), in which manager ratings of subordinate charisma influenced subordinate ratings of interpersonal and informational justice through the mechanisms of positive and negative sentiments (i.e., emotions felt by the manager toward the subordinate). A field study of 181 employees of a large national insurance company revealed partial support for this model. Structural equation modeling revealed that subordinate charisma was related to interpersonal justice perceptions, a relationship that was fully mediated by positive and negative sentiments. However, subordinate charisma was not associated with informational justice perceptions. These findings signal the potential utility in examining subordinate-based predictors of justice variables.     

THE RELATIONSHIPS OF AGE WITH JOB ATTITUDES: A META-ANALYSIS

Although organizational research on age has largely focused on the age–performance relationship, the relationships between age and job attitudes have received less attention. Guided by socioemotional selectivity theory, this paper provides a comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationships of chronological age with the 35 job attitudes most frequently studied as its correlates. Results of meta-analyses from more than 800 articles indicate that the relationships between chronological age and favorable attitudes (and/or to less unfavorable attitudes) toward work tasks, colleagues and supervisors, and organizations are generally significant and weak to moderate in strength. Moderator analyses also revealed that organizational tenure, race, gender, education level, and publication year of study moderate the relationships between age and job attitudes. Based on these findings, we make recommendations for future theory development and empirical research on age in organizational settings. We also discuss the implications of our findings for practice.     

The Role of Expectations of Future Performance

The present study examined the relationships among gender, causal attributions for success, and the distribution of organizational rewards. In this study, which attempted to control for methodological deficiencies of previous research, male and female undergraduates reviewed the performance of four stimulus managers: three men and one woman. Participants were asked to make causal attributions for the stimulus manager's success, and to rate how effectively they believed the manager would perform in the future. They were then asked to nominate a manager for an organizational reward. Bias against the female manager was exhibited by females only. Results indicated that lower expectations of future performance for the female manager significantly predicted the bias against her in reward allocation.     

An Exploration of Cognitive Demands in Group Interaction as a Moderator of Information Processing Variables in Perceptions of Leadership

In the application of information processing (IP) models in organizational settings, potential boundary or moderator variables are sometimes overlooked. We investigated whether the impact of important IP variables in the leadership perception literature was affected by a potentially important boundary variable: cognitive demands extraneous to impression formation. In contrast to past research, both quantity and quality (prototypicality) of behavior affected leadership perceptions in both low and high information load conditions. This result implies that prototype-related processing may be automatic enough to influence perceptions of leadership in actual organizational settings where cognitive demand is often high. Further, quantity of verbal behavior had a significant impact on causal attributions for level of group task performance and on perceptions of control of the groups'activities, suggesting that this variable may have important implications for inferences about a person's influence on work group processes and outcomes. The significance of these findings for the issues of leader influence and for the measurement of leader behavior is discussed.     

Status Incongruence and Supervisor Gender as Moderators of the Transformational Leadership to Subordinate Affective Organizational Commitment Relationship

Grounded in role congruity theory, we examine how status incongruence (when the subordinate is older, has more education, work experience, and/or organizational tenure than the supervisor) in subordinate–supervisor dyads affects transformational leaders’ ability to foster affective organizational commitment among their subordinates. Across two field studies, our findings show that the relationship between transformational leadership and subordinate affective organizational commitment is less positive when status incongruence is high. Furthermore, in both field studies we found a 3‐way interaction among transformational leadership, status incongruence, and supervisor gender predicting subordinate affective organizational commitment. Specifically, in Study 1 (pink‐collar employees in Turkey), low status incongruence strengthened the positive relationship between transformational leadership and subordinate affective organizational commitment for male leaders. In Study 2 (pink‐collar employees in the United States), low status incongruence strengthened the positive relationship between transformational leadership and subordinate affective organizational commitment for female leaders. Furthermore, Study 2 also revealed that collective identity was a mediator of both the significant 2‐ and 3‐way interaction effects on subordinate affective organizational commitment.     

"It's not my fault--but only I can change it": counterfactual and prefactual thoughts of managers

In testing for the self-serving bias in performance evaluation, the authors propose that comparing managers' counterfactual and prefactual thoughts about subordinates' performance is more conclusive than the attributional approach and also offers practical advantages. In a study with 120 managers, a 4-way interaction of subordinate performance, temporal perspective, direction, and reference confirmed the predicted pattern. Managers' thoughts about how a weak performance could have been enhanced had external references, but thoughts about how such a performance could be enhanced in the future focused on the leader. This asymmetry was only observed for weak performance. Results are discussed with regard to biases in leaders' performance evaluations and to how counter- and prefactual thoughts could be used for leadership research and practice.     

Are Chameleons Good Citizens? A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship Between Self-Monitoring and Organizational Citizenship Behavior

In this study the relationship between self-monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) was examined longitudinally among professional and managerial employees of a federal government research laboratory. Supervisory ratings of subordinates' OCBs were collected and matched with 172 subordinates' self-ratings of self-monitoring, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, perceived organizational support, and perceptions of job characteristics. One year later, supervisory ratings of subordinates' OCBs were again collected. Support was found for the hypothesis that individuals high in self-monitoring are more likely to perform OCBs which are other-directed. Implications for management and future research are discussed.     

An alternative perspective on sex differences in organizational settings: The process of legitimation

This article takes a sociological approach to a problem that has usually been considered as a psychological phenomenon. It addresses the problem of male—female interactions in work situations utilizing the organizational concepts of division of labor and legitimacy. Traditional explanations evoking sex-role socialization are reviewed and rejected for purposes of experimentation and intervention. An alternative argument, focusing on the structural arrangements of organizational settings, is presented as an explanation for behavioral effects previously attributed to inherent sex differences. The results of a pilot study are briefly described, and directions for further experimentation and possible intervention strategies are suggested.The bibliographic search and initial conceptualization of this research was supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation under the auspices of the Center for Research on Women at Stanford University. We are grateful to Miriam Rosen for much of the bibliographic work. The pilot study was supported in part by funds from the Guggenheim Foundation and by a grant from the Spencer Foundation. We also wish to thank Richard Torres and Christie Timberlake for their invaluable assistance on this project.     

ORGANIZATIONAL FRUSTRATION: A MODEL AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

A model that describes the effects of frustration on individual behavior in organizations is presented. Included is a discussion of the definitional problems with the frustration construct as well as a brief overview of laboratory research. This research is used to develop a model of organizational frustration and its behavioral effects, including increased and decreased job performance, organizational aggression (e.g., sabotage, strikes, work slowdowns, and stealing), absenteeism and turnover. Supporting evidence is supplied by the few studies which have investigated frustration in field and simulated organizational settings. Finally, frustration is shown to provide an alternative explanation to the effects of job dissatisfaction, inequity and participation in organizational change.     

Anger and Gender Effects in Observed Supervisor-Subordinate Dyadic Interactions

This study investigates the effects of a supervisor's anger and supervisor's and subordinate's gender on evaluations made by observers of interacting supervisor-subordinate dyads. In a laboratory experiment, 370 undergraduates viewed one of eight video-tapes representing the conditions of the 2 (gender of supervisor) × 2 (gender of subordinate) × 2 (presence or absence of anger) design and then completed evaluations of the supervisor and the subordinate. A field study using 265 employees from three organizations replicated the laboratory results. In spite of constant dialogue in the interactions across all eight conditions, supervisors expressing anger were rated lower and female supervisors were rated higher by observers. Subordinates were rated higher when interacting with an angry supervisor and when interacting with a male supervisor. Main effects of supervisor's gender may reflect over-evaluation of unexpected, albeit average, performance. The joint supervisor and subordinate effects are interpreted as reflecting a dyadic rating effect in which high ratings assigned to one member of the dyad are accompanied by lower ratings assigned to the other member.     

Managers' perceptions of workplace romances: An interview study

Although workplace romances occur frequently, no research has directly examined managers' perceptions of these relationships. In this study, managers (N=30) were interviewed about workplace romances. Included in these interviews were questions about organizational policies regarding these relationships, knowledge of prior or current workplace romances, and reactions to workplace romances and the participants in those relationships. Managers also responded to 12 items designed to assess the effect of different characteristics of workplace romances on perceptions of the need for management intervention. Responses to these items indicated that managers were most likely to recommend intervention when the relationship occurred between unequal organizational status participants, and it was negatively affecting the work group. The hypothesis that women managers would respond more negatively than would male managers to workplace romances was not supported. Factors that may affect managers' reactions to participants in workplace romances are discussed.This paper is based on research conducted by the first author with the direction of the second author. Funding was provided by the Psychology Department and Office of Research Services at Bowling Green State University.     

Safety in work vehicles: a multilevel study linking safety values and individual predictors to work-related driving crashes

Although work-related driving is associated with high accident rates, limited research has investigated the factors influencing driving crashes in the work setting. This study explored multilevel influences on self-reported crashes in the workplace by surveying a sample of work-related drivers (n = 380), their workgroup supervisors (n = 88), and fleet managers (n = 47). At the driver level of analysis, safety motivation predicted self-reported crashes. In turn, drivers' perceptions of their fleet managers' safety values (but not drivers' perceptions of their supervisors' safety values), their own attitudes, and their own efficacy beliefs predicted motivation to drive safely. Furthermore, the influence of supervisors and fleet managers interacted such that drivers were more motivated to drive safely if they perceived both their supervisor and fleet manager to value safety. This study also explored the cross-level relationships between supervisors' and fleet managers' perceptions of organizational safety values and drivers' perceptions of managerial safety values and found a relationship between fleet managers' perceptions of organizational safety values and drivers' perceptions of fleet managers' safety values. These results illustrate that perceptions of workplace safety values are transmitted across levels of the organization.