大学生内隐职业性别刻板印象研究

采用内隐联想测验和刻板解释偏差两种测量内隐社会认知的方法考察了60名大学生被试的内隐职业性别刻板印象。结果表明,大学生也存在非常明显的内隐职业性别刻板印象,刻板程度在性别、专业上没有显著差异。在男女职业评价刻板印象上,男大学生表现出非常明显的刻板印象,女大学生的观念已有所改变。用内隐联想测验和刻板解释偏差测量这两种方法测量大学生的内隐职业性别刻板印象,在被试的性别变量上得到的结果不一致。     

印象形成中交叉刻板印象的加工机制

以大学生作为被试,旨在探究：在交叉刻板印象加工过程中,是否存在某一单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？如果存在,靶子熟悉度的差异是否会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？该单维刻板印象加工优势效应是否还会受到其他单维刻板印象加工的调节。研究结果表明：（1）在对具有性别-年龄组合而成的交叉刻板印象的人群进行判断时,通过面孔进行启动,发现在不同的条件下分别存在性别单维刻板印象和年龄单维刻板印象的加工优势效应,即年轻男性或女性面孔的性别特征较年龄特征更容易得到加工和提取,老年男性或女性面孔的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。而在范畴词汇启动下,老年男性或女性词汇启动下的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。（2）熟悉性会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势,即在年轻被试感知面孔或范畴词汇时,其对老年男性或女性靶子间击中率的差异要显著大于对年轻男性或女性的靶子间击中率的差异。换言之,年轻被试感知老年人靶子的性别与年龄间的差异要显著大于年轻人靶子,出现自我参照现象。（3）在交叉刻板印象加工中,同时存在的各类单维刻板印象加工是彼此削弱的,具有优势加工效应的刻板印象的加工会受到非优势刻板印象加工的抑制。（4）在交叉刻板印象加工中,优势刻板印象加工会受到其相对刻板印象加工的削弱。     

大学生性别情绪刻板印象的内隐和外显研究

为了了解不同性别大学生的性别情绪刻板印象,并分析内隐和外显测验的关系,对280名大学生进行了外显连线测试,对87名大学生进行了内隐联想测验。结果发现:在内隐和外显测验中,男女大学生均存在性别情绪刻板印象,将男性名字更多地与愤怒词相联系,将女性名字更多地与高兴词相联系;男女大学生的性别情绪刻板印象程度存在极其显著的差异,女生更明显地表现出"男性更容易愤怒、女性更容易高兴"的偏见;被试的内隐和外显性别情绪刻板印象相关不显著,是两个不同的建构。     

数学性别刻板印象的内隐联想测验研究

本研究采用IAT实验设计,考察大学生的内隐数学-性别刻板印象.结果发现,IAT方法能检测到大学生存在"男性比女性更擅长数学"的内隐数学-性别刻板印象;IAT所测量到的内隐数学-性别刻板印象有性别差异,所测得的内隐数学-性别刻板印象没有专业差异; IAT与SEB所测得的结果不相同,IAT和SEB测得的是被试记忆中复杂网络联结的不同方面.     

大学生职业性别刻板印象的内隐研究

本研究采用内隐联想测验（IAT）和刻板解释偏差（SEB）两种方法对大学生的职业性别刻板印象进行了内隐研究。发现被试整体在两次实验中均表现出极为显著的内隐刻板印象,女大学生头脑中的刻板印象对其行为归因已形成显著影响。研究结果表明,SEB是一种测量内隐刻板印象的有效方法。     

内隐性别刻板印象与自尊的关系研究

为了考察内隐性别刻板印象的存在广度,以及探讨它与自尊的关系,本研究采用内隐联想测验(IAT)和自尊量表(SES)考察65名大学生被试的内隐性别刻板印象和自尊水平,得出以下结论:一、大学生中普遍存在着内隐性别刻板印象,并且不同性别的内隐性别刻板印象不具有显著差异。二、有内隐性别刻板印象的人群中,不同性别的自尊水平差异不显著。三、内隐性别刻板印象与个体自尊水平的相关不显著。     

性别刻板印象维护的心理机制

性别刻板印象对人们有着重要影响。反性别刻板的行为违背了人们对性别角色的期望和要求,人们为了维护自己的性别刻板印象会采用不同的策略来对反性别刻板的行为作出反应。文章介绍了认知过程中对反性别刻板信息的抗拒和行为反应中对反性别刻板行为的抵制功能模型,分析了人们维护性别刻板印象的心理机制,并对有关性别刻板印象维护的研究进行了评价和展望     

性别刻板印象维护的心理机制

性别刻板印象对人们有着重要影响.反性别刻板的行为违背了人们对性别角色的期望和要求,人们为了维护自己的性别刻板印象会采用不同的策略来对反性别刻板的行为作出反应.文章介绍了认知过程中对反性别刻板信息的抗拒和行为反应中对反性别刻板行为的抵制功能模型,分析了人们维护性别刻板印象的心理机制,并对有关性别刻板印象维护的研究进行了评价和展望.     

刻板印象的激活效应:行为和ERPs证据

以刻板印象表征中的核心内容——刻板特质词作为研究材料,采用分类-确认范式对刻板印象激活效应的时间进程及其认知机制进行了探讨。以性别范畴词"男"/"女"作为启动刺激,以性别刻板特质词作为靶子,特质词与范畴词构成一致和冲突两种情境,记录了34名被试(男女各半)对特质词与范畴词进行一致性判断时的行为反应和ERPs。结果发现:(1)刻板印象冲突情境下,因刻板印象激活效应的作用,被试的反应时要比刻板印象一致情境下更长;不同性别的被试均表现出性别内群体范畴词激活优势效应,即内群体范畴词启动条件下反应时更短。(2)刻板印象激活效应对早期ERP成分(P1、N170、N100、P2)没有影响,在刻板印象冲突情境下诱发了额-中区更显著的N400,该成分标志着刻板印象的激活效应;不同性别的被试均在内群体范畴词启动下诱发了波幅更大的P600。(3)刻板印象的激活效应以及内群体范畴词激活优势效应均发生在知觉后阶段。     

性别-学科刻板印象的加工模式实验研究

性别刻板印象是在继种族刻板印象之后,逐渐受到研究者们关注的热点问题。本文运用内隐联想测量法来探讨大学生性别一学科刻板印象的加工模式,采用3×2×2的三因素完全随机设计进行实验研究。结果表明：内隐和外显的性别-学科刻板印象出现了实验分离现象。三个不同的内隐测量组的被试均不同程度认为男女性在学习文科时能力相当,学习理科方面则男性明显优于女性。但在外显测试中被试们却认为两者在学习文理科时无差异。结论：内隐性别一学科刻板印象更倾向于一种自动化加工,采用的是“自上而下”的省时省力加工模式。而外显性别一学科刻板印象趋向于自动加工与控制加工相结合,是一种“自下而上”、“三思而答”的加工模式。     

The Effect of Pink/Blue Clothing on Implicit and Explicit Gender‐Related Self‐Cognition and Attitudes Among Men

In many cultures worldwide, one stereotype emerges: Pink is associated with girls and blue is associated with boys. Based on the enclothed cognition theory, the present study examined the effects of men's pink clothing on gender‐related self‐cognition and sex‐role attitudes. Male Japanese participants wore either a pink or blue coat and completed a gender stereotype Implicit Association Test, a self‐rating scale, and gender attitude scales (a measure of egalitarian sex‐role attitude and the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory). Results showed that among participants with low self‐esteem, the implicit self–feminine association was stronger in the pink condition than in the blue condition. On the other hand, participants with high self‐esteem explicitly associated themselves more with power‐oriented traits compared with interpersonal‐oriented traits when they wore a pink coat compared with those who wore a blue coat. Additionally, participants in the pink condition expressed stronger egalitarian sex‐role attitudes and weaker benevolent sexism than those in the blue condition. We propose that men's pink clothing is a means of diminishing gender stereotypes and traditional sex‐role attitudes.     

Evaluating sex discrimination claims: the mediating role of attributions.

The role of attributions in judgments of sex discrimination was examined in 2 laboratory experiments. In Study 1, participants read 1 of 12 brief scenarios in which limited information about the strength of evidence against a fictitious corporation and occupational gender stereotype were manipulated. Results suggested that attributions mediated the relationships between participants' gender, strength of evidence, and discrimination judgments. In Study 2, participants were provided with 1 of 3 detailed, typewritten summaries of evidence presented in a sex discrimination trial. Results indicated that jurors' gender was again significantly related to attributions and to sex discrimination judgments even in the face of substantial objective information related to the case. The variance in observers' judgments associated with gender, however, appeared to be greatest when information about the organization's guilt or innocence was equivocal.     

性别、性别角色和性别观念对大学生人格特征的影响

通过对北京市5所大学552名大学生的调查,探讨性别、性别角色类型和性别观念类型对大学生人格特征的影响。结果表明:(1)性别角色和性别观念比生理性别对大学生人格特征的影响更大。(2)双性化大学生具有更多积极的人格特征;传统型大学生具有较高的面子;反传统型大学生具有较高的宜人性和较低的面子;冲突型大学生具有较高的神经质、防御性和较低的宜人性、灵活性;未分化型大学生具有较高的宜人性和较低的神经质。     

双性化大学生人格特征研究

通过对北京市某所大学826名大学生的调查,探讨性别、性别角色类型和新性别角色类型对大学生人格特征的影响。结果表明：1）双性化性别角色类型大学生约占1／4;2）用贝姆的分类方法,双性化大学生在开放性、宜人性、责任感、和谐性、人情、灵活性人格特征上均高于其他性别角色类型的大学生,可见,双性化性别角色大学生具有较积极的人格特征。按照Brenda Mae Woodhill和CurtisA．Samuels的分类方法,在外向性、开放性、宜人性、责任感、和谐性人格特征上,正性双性化性别角色类型的大学生均高于负性双性化大学生和其他性别角色类型的大学生。     

阅读理解中的代词加工:先行词的距离与性别刻板印象的作用

采用眼动技术,本研究探讨了阅读理解中代词的加工机制.读者阅读包含代词的文本,代词的性别与先行词的性别刻板印象一致或违背,同时其和先行词间的距离或远或近,记录被试阅读文本的眼动轨迹.结果发现,与一致条件相比,违背条件的加工时间更长.当代词和先行词间距离较近时,一致性效应在关键代词区的反映早期加工的眼动指标上即出现,而当二者间距离较远时,一致性效应在更后的位置(代词后那一区域)出现,并且只出现在反映晚期加工的眼动指标上.此外,与远距离一致条件相比,近距离一致条件下代词后那一区域的阅读时间更长.上述结果表明,性别刻板印象以及距离在代词加工皆发挥重要作用,而且性别刻板印象产生的影响在时程上因距离的不同而不同.这一结果在一定程度上为语言理解的交互作用理论提供了证据.     

常识性知识和语篇语境对代词指认的影响

本研究围绕中文代词理解中, 读者的常识性知识和语篇语境的作用以及作用时程这一问题展开。实验1首先探讨在中文阅读理解中, 职业性别倾向这种常识性信息是否能对代词的指认产生早期影响。存在一致和冲突(如警卫-他; 警卫-她)两个实验条件, 结果在凝视时间、重读时间和总阅读时间上都发现了职业性别倾向所引发的性别冲突效应。实验2在实验1基础上增加一个代词(如：警卫-他-他; 警卫-她-她), 考察更正后的信息, 即文本语境内容是否可以覆盖常识的作用对代词加工产生影响。结果发现语篇语境确实可以覆盖常识性信息的作用, 对代词加工产生早期影响。但是, 职业性别倾向这种常识性知识仍然在代词加工的后期阶段发挥作用。考虑到代词所形成的语境较为含蓄, 实验3中采用更明确的方式来界定职业名称的性别, 例如男艺人、爸爸等, 然后再出现一个代词, 代词的性别始终和先前的性别描述一致, 而与职业性别倾向冲突, 这样也存在一致和冲突两个条件(例如：保姆-妻子-她, 警卫-妻子-她), 结果发现只有更正后的语境信息对代词加工产生影响, 职业性别倾向不再发挥作用。说明在中文这种高语境依赖性的语言文字中, 语境可以覆盖常识性知识对代词加工产生早期作用。但是, 语境作用的持续性问题会受到语篇语境中性别信息明确程度的影响。     

儿童同伴群体活动中的性别排斥

实验一以图片为材料研究了儿童同伴群体活动中的性别刻板印象。实验二以情景故事法研究了儿童在不同排斥情景中发生性别排斥的原因即其与性别刻板印象的关系。被试为幼儿园大班、2年级和5年级儿童。结果发现,（1）在同伴群体活动中三个年龄段的儿童都存在着明显的性别刻板印象。（2）同伴群体活动中的性别排斥行为并不是由性别刻板印象引起的。（3）儿童会以道德和亲社会行为为理由接纳异性儿童,会因为群体认同、群体功效和刻板印象而排斥异性儿童。     

Gender Typed Advertisements and Impression Formation: The Role of Chronic and Temporary Accessibility

In this research, we tested the effects of chronic and temporary sources of accessibility on impression formation. Although some research suggests that chronicity amplifies temporary effects because of greater susceptibility to external primes, other research suggests that chronicity masks temporary effects because of redundance. We demonstrate in a thought listing study that in the domain of gender stereotypes, trait stereotypes may be routinely applied by those with a medium or high tendency to stereotype women, making external primes redundant. Based on this redundancy, we proposed that gender stereotypical primes will have little influence on subsequent judgments of those with a medium or high tendency to gender stereotype. In contrast, gender stereotypical primes will result in the classic assimilation effect for those with a low tendency to gender stereotype. We tested these propositions in the domain of female role portrayals in advertising and examined the effect of advertisements that feature women as homemakers (vs. do not feature women) on trait judgments of a target woman whose behaviors are ambiguously described. Results from 2 experiments show that, as predicted by the redundancy hypothesis, judgments of medium and high tendency to stereotype participants are not affected by advertisements portraying homemakers. Also as expected, judgments of low tendency to stereotype participants are assimilated to the homemaker prime. These results hold across tendency to trait stereotype (Experiment 1) and tendency to role stereotype (Experiment 2) and for trait judgments as well as gift choice. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The World According to Men: It Is Hierarchical and Stereotypical

The present research was designed to test whether people who expect social relationships to be structured like pecking orders (interpersonal hierarchy expectation, IHE) are also prone to stereotyping and whether this relation is moderated by gender. In two studies, a total of 203 participants completed a self-report questionnaire on IHE (Interpersonal Hierarchy Expectation Scale, IHES) and either a questionnaire that measures a general tendency to stereotype (Acceptance of Stereotyping Questionnaire, ASQ, Study 1) or a projective measure that assesses the specific gender stereotype that low dominance positions are occupied by women and high dominance positions by men (Study 2). Results showed that both stereotyping measures were related to IHE, but only for men. Moreover, trait dominance did not mediate the relation between IHE and stereotyping.     

Occupational Achievement Motivation as a Function of Biological Sex, Sex-Linked Personality, and Occupation Stereotype

Predicted sex differences in occupational achievement motivation based on the work of Horner (1968) and Stein, Pohly and Mueller (1971) were examined by administering questionnaires to 87 female and 91 male undergraduate psychology students. Subjects made six achievement related responses to twelve occupations which had been stereotyped by a separate group of subjects as being either high prestige masculine, middle prestige masculine, middle prestige feminine or middle prestige androgynous (appropriate for both sexes). Analyses of variance were performed on all achievement responses with subjects'sex, sex-linked personality (Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1974), and occupational stereotype as independent variables. Significant sex by occupation stereotype interactions were found on all six dependent measures supporting the Stein et al. prediction of highest achievement motivation toward sex appropriate occupations. The fact that females did not show significantly lower motivation than males toward high prestige masculine occupations is inconsistent with earlier findings. Sex-linked personality was related to some of the achievement measures but did not interact with either occupation stereotype or biological sex.