基因研究与科学假说方法

基因研究与科学假说方法广东医学院（湛江５２４０２３）张飞燕在自然科学史上,科学假说发挥了至关重要的作用,许多重大的科学发现、科学理论的建立,开始都是以假说的形式出现的。因此,探讨基因认识中的科学假说及其作用,对于指导人们从事科学研究,具有一定的认识论...     

哲学研究中的假说方法

在自然科学中,假说被看作是人的认识通向科学真理、建立科学理论的必由之路。正如恩格斯所说:“只要自然科学在思维着,它的发展形式就是假说。”(《自然辩证法》,第218页)可是,对于哲学中是否存在假说、哲学是否容许假说,有的学者却是持保留态度甚至加以否定的。其实,在哲学隶属     

修辞的认识论功能——从科学修辞学角度看

科学修辞的认知意义在理论上基于对知识和修辞的不同认识,即知识被认为是拥有确定性的真的信念,修辞的论辩、逻辑部分被重新发掘。在这一框架下,修辞不再外在于科学知识核心,而是在从个人经验到科学假说、直至科学理论及其检验等一系列过程中都有着深刻的认知意义。     

核医学与科学假说方法

追溯科学发展史 ,无不体现了科学发展的辩证规律和科学方法的指导作用 ,证明了科学假说的决定性作用。科学假说是研究工作中十分重要的智力活动手段 ,是形成新理论的桥梁。作为自然科学中独立的分支 ,核医学所应用的放射性核素极其微小 ,种类众多 ,也不能肉眼看到 ,而且还有很多是人类未能发现的。所以在把放射性核素应用于医学研究中常常用到假说探索求知的方法 ,形成科学理论。1　核医学发展中假说的形成过程核医学是随着社会生产力的发展 ,在不同学派和不同观点中发展起来的。在核医学发展过程中 ,假说的形成经历了十分复杂的过程。概括…     

《上帝是幻觉》

该书批判了宗教教条、历代对上帝存在的一些论证，试图为无神论建立一个科学框架。该书认为“上帝假说”同任何假说一样，应该受到人们怀疑性分析和批判；驳斥了“没有上帝，人们就没有道德”；并肯定了美国哲学家R·Pirsig的观点：“当一个人出现一种幻觉的时候，叫做精神失常；当许多人出现一种幻觉的时候，叫做宗教。”     

科学检验的逻辑及其困境

科学假说、理论必须接受观察、实验的检验,科学检验问题是西方科学哲学和科学方法论中的一个重要问题。从逻辑经验主义开始的西方科学哲学,企图从逻辑的、定量的角度探索解决科学检验问题,并给科学检验以逻辑表征。本文在西方科学哲学的基础上,着重探讨这种检验的逻辑过程和逻辑模式以及遇到的逻辑困难。以卡尔纳普为代表的逻辑经验主义继承了罗素、维特根斯坦的逻辑原子论思想,正式提出了经验证实原则,他们把这个原则概括为一句名言“命题的意义就是它的证实方法。”那么,科学假说、理论是怎样被证实的呢?也就是说,对假说、理论进行检验的活动其过程如何?一般说来,在检验一个假说、理论时,首先必须应用演绎法,从科学假说、理论推导出结果即经验陈述,然后把这种经验陈述与通过归纳法从观察、实验中得出的结果加以对照,看是否一致。如果用H表示假说、理论(一般为全称命题),E是由H导出的经验陈述或观察、实验结果,S为被考察对象系列,则其     

类比与联想的哲学原理在耳蜗血管纹心钠素研究中的应用

类比与联想的哲学原理在耳蜗血管纹心钠素研究中的应用第一军医大学南方医院耳鼻咽喉科（广州５１０５１５）陈合新一、耳蜗血管纹组织中心钠素存在的假说血管纹组织中存在有心钠素的科学假说是在已有的知识中通过类比与联想的原理建立起来的，其依据为：１机体受到噪声...     

证伪与证实

正按照哲学家卡尔·波普尔的观点,科学理论和人类所掌握的一切知识,都不过是推测和假说。科学理论不能够被证实,但可能被证伪。例如,人们在观察到100只白天鹅后提出假说:所有的天鹅都是白色的。接下来无论找到多少只白天鹅,显然都不能证实这一假说,因为总是存在下一只天鹅为黑天鹅的可能性。然而,一旦一只黑天鹅被找到,这个假说就被证伪。可证伪性是划分科学与非科     

浅析肿瘤胚胎性起源假说

假说的检验是一个历史的辩证的发展过程.1829年,Lobstein和Recamier提出了肿瘤的胚胎性起源的概念.经过了近2个世纪,应该重新认识和评价该假说.论述了现有肿瘤起源假说,肿瘤胚胎性起源假说的提出、发展、证据和意义,以及给予我们的启示.     

吞噬细胞理论的形成及其意义

梅契尼科夫在追溯中胚层的起源时,以生存竞争解释吞噬细胞吞噬机体衰老和死亡组织功能的获得.进而将这一发现推广到病理学和免疫学领域,指出吞噬细胞是炎症和免疫的原因.该理论的提出过程是科学问题和科学假说引导科学研究的典型案例.     

Plato's Hypothetical Inquiry in the Meno

This paper argues that the hypothesis proposed in the Meno is the proposition ‘virtue is good’ alone, and that its epistemic nature is essentially insecure. It has been an object of huge scholarly debate which other hypothesis Socrates posited with regard to the relationship between virtue and knowledge. This debate is, however, misleading in the sense of making us believe that the hypothesis that virtue is good is regarded as a truism in the light of the process of positing a higher hypothesis described in the Phaedo and the Republic. I argue that the hypothesis in question is presented as a result of the earlier discussion of Meno's third definition of virtue (77b2–79a2), which implies the consequence that morally correct actions are beneficial whether or not accompanied by conventional goods such as wealth and honour. The underlying role of presenting it as a hypothesis is therefore to postpone demonstrating the truth of a controversial thesis which needs a substantial justification. In conclusion, I suggest that Plato's real intention in introducing the method of hypothesis in the dialogue is not to answer the original question but to lead Meno to seek for knowledge.     

Motor Response Variations: Peripheral and Central Sources of Error

The purpose of this research was to test the hypothesis that the relative involvement of peripheral versus central nervous system activity during response variations determines the locus of error production in a subsequent criterion response. The hypothesis was tested by comparing ipsilateral and contralateral transfer of a criterion response following response variations that emphasized proportionately different involvement of the peripheral and central systems. When subjects were provided with knowledge of results (KR) to maintain a 30% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), ipsilateral but not contralateral bias errors occurred on a subsequent dynamic response. When subjects maintained a 30% MVC without KR, however, subsequent ipsilateral bias errors were greater than contralateral bias errors. Finally, when subjects imaged a 30% MVC, subsequent bias errors were equivalent across limbs. These results are interpreted as support for the hypothesis.     

Reduced-Frequency Concurrent and Terminal Feedback: A Test of the Guidance Hypothesis

In 2 experiments, the authors manipulated the frequency of concurrent feedback to discern the effects on learning. In each experiment, participants (N = 48, Experiment 1; N = 36, Experiment 2) attempted to reproduce a criterion force-production waveform (5 s in duration) presented on the computer monitor. Consistent with the guidance hypothesis, the results of Experiment 1 indicated very strong guiding effects of concurrent feedback and strong dependence on the feedback, as indicated by participants' extremely poor performance upon feedback withdrawal in retention. As predicted by the guidance hypothesis, dependence on the feedback was reduced as a result of reducing the frequency of the concurrent feedback. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that one can enhance learning by providing concurrent and terminal feedback on 1 trial, with no feedback on the subsequent trial. In that way, the strong guiding effects of concurrent feedback could be realized and the beneficial effects of terminal feedback could also be achieved.     

Moderating the bullying perpetration–delinquency relationship with parental support and knowledge: A prospective analysis of middle school students

The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether parental support and knowledge moderate the relationship between bullying perpetration and delinquency. A sample of 305 middle school students (141 boys, 164 girls; 10–12 years of age) served as participants in this study. The research hypothesis predicted that parental support and knowledge would moderate the prospective bullying–delinquency relationship. Testing this hypothesis with least squares regression parametric coefficients and percentile bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals, parental support received full support and parental knowledge no support as factors potentially capable of reducing risk for future delinquency by interacting with prior bullying perpetration. Whereas parental support decreased the odds of high bullying boys engaging in future delinquency—an outcome consistent with the view that parenting can serve a protective function against future offending by neutralizing the risk effect of bullying—parental knowledge failed to reduce future delinquency in children who bullied, although it did have a direct ameliorative effect on future delinquency. The protective effect was strongest when parental support was high and parental knowledge low, whereas the risk effect was strongest when parental support was low and parental knowledge was medium to high. These results suggest that protective and risk effects are limited to certain combinations of protective and risk factors.     

Effects of prior knowledge and response bias upon recognition memory for a story: Implications for children's eyewitness testimony

Abstract: The present study was designed to evaluate the integration hypothesis and the response bias hypothesis for explaining the fragility of children's eyewitness memory, by varying the plausibility of postevent information and the strength of response bias in recognition tests. Preschool children were told a story in which a boy named Ken saw a housebreaker stealing various objects and the postevent information was also incorporated into the story. The first recognition test was administered immediately following the presentation of an interpolated story, and the second recognition test was administered 10 weeks later. The results indicated that high-plausibility objects tended to be recognized as the stolen objects in the second recognition test, and that recognition accuracy was higher for a new-distractor condition than for a misleading-distractor condition. These findings were interpreted as suggesting that the memory representation of the story might be changed through the integration processes and/or rendered inaccessible in terms of the response bias.     

Test anxiety and comprehension efficiency: The role of prior knowledge and working memory deficits

The hypotheses that test anxiety is associated with a deficit in prior knowledge and/or working memory capacity, that anxiety impairs comprehension efficiency, and that deficits in knowledge and capacity underlie the efficiency impairment, were tested. In Study 1, high-anxiety students were characterized by lower scores in several vocabulary measures, compared with low-anxiety students. In Study 2, high-anxiety individuals showed inferior working memory capacity to low-anxiety individuals under evaluative stress conditions, but not under non-stress conditions. In Study 3 high-anxiety subjects exhibited lower efficiency scores than low-anxiety subjects in expository texts without a summary: The former employed a greater amount of reading time than the latter to acquire an equivalent amount of information. In addition, the disadvantage in efficiency associated with anxiety was removed when differences in vocabulary knowledge were partialled out statistically. Instead, that disadvantage was only reduced, but not eliminated, when differences in transitory working memory capacity were partialled out. Therefore, the prior knowledge deficit hypothesis accounts for the impairment in reading efficiency associated with high anxiety better than the transitory working memory reduction hypothesis.     

Relative accessibility of domain knowledge and creativity: The effects of knowledge activation on the quantity and originality of generated ideas

In brainstorming research, quantity is assumed to breed quality. However, little is known about the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. A parsimonious explanation assumes a random process, in which every idea has an equal chance of being a high-quality (original and feasible) idea. In contrast, a ‘deep exploration’ approach suggests that the originality (but not the feasibility) of generated ideas is dependent on the degree to which people engage in deep exploration of their knowledge. We conducted two experiments to test the latter hypothesis. Prior to a brainstorming task, participants were primed with subcategories of the brainstorming topic. Priming caused a higher relative productivity and average originality within the primed subcategory, but did not affect global productivity and originality across categories. This effect was replicated in dyadic interactions. These results support the deep exploration hypothesis, and suggest that the relationship between quantity and quality is more complex than has previously been assumed.     

Strategies in the Information Search Process: Interaction Among Task Structure,Knowledge, and Source

The authors explored the information search strategies of 145 individuals in the predecisional stage. Decision-making participants selected pieces of information from a list including relevant and irrelevant data. The authors investigated the influence of the individual's knowledge and information source. In Experiment 1, the authors experimentally manipulated the information source reliability. The results revealed that participants tended to use a sequential strategy when the authors presented information as supplied by a reliable source. In Experiment 2, the authors analyzed the interaction between information source and the individuals' knowledge. When participants believed the source to be reliable, even knowledgeable participants adopted a strategy as sequential as that chosen by naive individuals. In Experiment 3, a mediational model corroborated the hypothesis that the search strategy affects the final judgment. The results were consistent with the constructivist framework, which emphasizes the role of individual, task, and context in the decision-making process.     

Category learning with a goal: how goals constrain conceptual acquisition

A novel task was used to examine the roles that goals play in concept acquisition. In Experiment 1, we varied the type of interaction, and thus the task goal, of participants working in a novel domain. Following those interactions, participant responses showed that they had organized their knowledge in terms of goal-relevant features. Using a variation of the same methodology, Experiment 2 provided evidence that the goal relevance also played a role in how the participants structured their knowledge of the items, specifically what information about the items was associated with differentiating the categories encountered. The results suggest that the goals not only highlighted particular features, they determined the centrality of those features in the conceptual knowledge. We discuss the results in terms of the goal-framework hypothesis; the idea that goals structure information and provide coherence to the acquired concepts. We discuss how this approach informs category learning research.     

练习背景下表征水平的变化

Karmiloff-Smith提出的表征重述理论认为表征重述是人类获取知识的重要途径。为探讨练习是否能够提供表征重述的机会从而促进表征水平的变化,对29名小学一年级儿童进行数字分解组合任务的研究。结果表明：（1）练习背景下约有半数儿童的表征从内隐水平发展到外显水平,但其他儿童的表征水平没有发生任何变化;（2）练习背景下儿童表征变化的路线并不完全像Karmiloff-Smith设想的那样经由程序阶段到元程序阶段再到概念化阶段,而是存在其他多种可能的发展路线;（3）练习背景下儿童获得的表征的灵活性是有限的,即可以推广到近迁移问题上,而难以推广到远迁移问题上