The relation of gender-role classifications to the prosocial and antisocial behavior of Chinese adolescents

The author investigated the relation between gender-role classifications and prosocial and antisocial behavior for 505 Chinese adolescents in grades 7 to 12. The author found that (a) boys were more antisocial than girls were, (b) there was no significant gender difference in prosocial behavior, (c) prosocial behavior was associated positively with both masculinity and femininity, (d) delinquent behavior was associated positively with masculinity, (e) gender-role classification that was consistent with one's biological gender (e.g., femininity in girls) was more salient in predicting one's prosocial behavior than was a gender-role classification that was not consistent with one's gender (e.g., femininity in boys), (f) delinquent behavior in the feminine group was significantly lower than it was in the other 3 gender-role groups (masculine, androgynous, undifferentiated), and (g) adolescents in the undifferentiated group tended to be less prosocial and fairly antisocial, and their social behavioral pattern was the least favorable among the four gender-role classifications.     

MCMI-II scoring: weighted and unweighted algorithms

This brief report examines the relationship between the scale scores derived through weighted and unweighted item scoring on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-II (MCMI-II). The inventories of 356 subjects across three samples were scored using weighted and unweighted algorithms. Correlations between the weighted and unweighted MCMI-II scales were found to approach unity. This casts doubt on whether the weighting system has substantial effect on the profiles that are generated or on reducing interscale correlations.     

MCMI-II Scoring: Weighted and Unweighted Algorithms

This brief report examines the relationship between the scale scores derived through weighted and unweighted item scoring on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-II (MCMI-II). The inventories of 356 subjects across three Samples were scored using weighted and unweighted algorithms. Correlations between the weighted and unweighted MCMI-II scales were found to approach unity. This casts doubt on whether the weighting system has substantial effect on the profiles that are generated or on reducing interscale correlations.     

Paraverbal indicators of deception: a meta‐analytic synthesis

This meta‐analysis provides a quantitative synthesis of paraverbal indicators of deception as a function of different moderator variables. Of nine different speech behaviours analysed only two were reliably associated with deception in the weighted, and four in the analysis unweighted by sample size. Pitch, response latency and speech errors were positively, message duration negatively related to deception. As most effect sizes were found to be heterogeneous, analyses of moderator variables revealed that many of the observed relationships varied as a function of content, preparation, motivation, sanctioning of the lie, experimental design and operationalization. Of different theoretical approaches reviewed, a working memory model of lie production may best account for the findings. Because of the small effect sizes, and the heterogeneity in findings, practitioners must be cautioned to use such indicators in assessing the truthfulness of reports but nonetheless practical implications for different types of situations are outlined. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Gender-Role Self-Stereotyping and the Relationship Between Equity and Satisfaction in Close Relationships

Gender-role self-stereotyping was investigated as a moderator of the importance of equity to satisfaction within close relationships in a sample of 204 men and women in long-term relationships. For those low in gender-role self-stereotyping, equity strongly predicted satisfaction, whereas for those higher in gender-role self-stereotyping, satisfaction was predicted by the belief that one's own relationship compared favorably with those of same-sex others. The importance of equity was also investigated by asking participants to predict how they would respond if they found themselves in an overbenefiting or underbenefiting relationship. Predicted responses to inequity were influenced by participants' sex, degree of gender-role self-stereotyping, and the type of inequity imagined. These finding are discussed in terms of the system justifying effects of gender-role stereotypes.     

Student Characteristics Associated with Girls�� Success in a Single-sex School

Given the mixed results of previous studies on the benefits of single-sex schooling, scholars have called for research on differences in the effects of single-sex schooling based on student and school characteristics. We sought to examine the associations of a range of student characteristics with attitudes and achievement among students attending an all-girls public middle school in the southwestern United States. Predictor variables included demographic factors (i.e., race, family income), prior academic achievement, gender stereotyping, and gender identity (i.e., gender typicality, peer preferences). Prior academic achievement predicted later achievement and persistence in the single-sex school. School-related stereotyping was associated with success in and connection to the single-sex school; school connection was also a significant moderator of the relation between stereotyping and academic performance. Gender-typed peer preferences were associated with school connection and persistence. Overall, results indicate that student characteristics, as well as issues of ??fit?? with the specific school, are associated with students?? connection to and success in single-sex educational environments.     

Gender-role conflict scale: College men's fear of femininity

Gender-role conflict exists when gender roles have negative consequences for people. This research reports initial validity and reliability data on measures of gender-role conflict for men. Two measures, Gender Role Conflict Scale I and II (GRCS-I and GRCS-II) were constructed to assess patterns of gender-role conflict described in the literature. GRCS-I assesses men's personal gender-role attitudes, behaviors, and conflicts. GRCS-II assesses men's gender-role conflicts in specific gender-role conflict situations. Both GRCS measures and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) were administered to male college students (N=527). Initial factor-analytic data for GRCS-I and GRCS-II demonstrated eight meaningful factors. Acceptable test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities were found for both measures. MANOVA, ANOVA, and Tukey procedures indicated differences for subjects across the four PAQ categories. Significant gender-role conflict differences across the factors were found for men who were instrumental, expressive, or both instrumental and expressive. Results of these differences are reported, as well as implications for future development of both scales.The authors are indebted to Dr. Nancy Betz (Ohio State University) who generously gathered data for us during the Spring Semester, 1982. This research was supported by a grant from the General Research Fund of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. This paper was presented at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention, Washington, DC, August 26, 1982.     

Gender-Role Variables and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

Two studies examined the relationships of gender-role variables to attitudes toward homosexuality. Study 1, a meta-analysis, found that endorsement of traditional gender-role beliefs, modern sexism, and hypermasculinity were related to attitudes, but that gender-role self-concept was not. Study 2 examined the relationships of endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, modern sexism, hypermasculinity, and hyperfemininity to attitudes toward homosexuality and self-reported antigay behaviors in a college student sample. The best predictors of attitudes were participant gender, endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, benevolent sexism, and modern sexism. The best predictors of antigay behavior were participant gender and hyper-gender-role orientation; attitudes toward women and modern sexism were also predictors for men but not for women.     

Differential effectiveness of two classification procedures on the Bem Sex Role Inventory

Two procedures-a simple median split and a difference/median split method-were used to classify 102 male and 129 female college students into masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated sex role orientations on the basis of their Bern Sex Role Inventory scores. Differences in classification occurred among nearly one-third of the subjects, and as expected, the difference/median split procedure was more successful in predicting sex-role ideology. Using this procedure, masculine-typed females were found to be most profeminist in their attitudes, while low masculinity females were most conservative. No significant differences were obtained for the male groups using either procedure. Future research with the BSRI and related sex-role measures should employ similar comparisons to determine the relative validity of the two procedures.     

Characteristics of androgynous,undifferentiated, masculine,and feminine middle-class women

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory was given to a random sample of 369 middle-class, 20–59-year-old women during the second year of a panel study. A median split on the masculine and feminine scores was used to define feminine (47%), androgynous (24%), masculine (10%), and undifferentiated (19%) women. The four groups were compared using analysis of variance and multiple regression techniques on a variety of demographic, attitudinal, time utilization, personality, and health characteristics to investigate the relationships among sex-typing, attitudes, and behavior. Significant demographic, time utilization, personality, and attitudinal differences were generally consistent with sex-typing, but differences in health were not found.Research for this paper was funded by a National Institute of Drug Abuse grant (DA 00847) to L. S. Fidell and J. E. Prather. Correspondence should be addressed to Linda S. Fidell, Department of Psychology, California State University, Northridge, California 91330.     

Taking the next step: combining incrementally valid indicators to improve recidivism prediction

The possibility of combining indicators to improve recidivism prediction was evaluated in a sample of released federal prisoners randomly divided into a derivation subsample (n = 550) and a cross-validation subsample (n = 551). Five incrementally valid indicators were selected from five domains: demographic (age), historical (prior convictions), adjustment (prior incident reports), rating scale (Violation scale of the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form), and self-report (General Criminal Thinking score from the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles). After converting scores on the five indicators to a common scale (z score), two combined scores were calculated: a simple summed score (unweighted summed score) and a score computed using beta weights from a Cox survival analysis of the derivation subsample (weighted summed score). Correlational and receiver operating characteristic analyses revealed that the unweighted and weighted summed scores produced equivalent results and that both improved significantly on the results of the five contributing indicators.     

Impact of mothers' life style on adolescent gender-role socialization

The perceptions and attitudes of 365 eighth-grade girls were surveyed to examine the direct and indirect impact of mothers' life style on adolescents' gender-role development. Among the hypotheses investigated were the following: (1) mothers' activity outside the home enhances her status and increases the likelihood of diminished gender-role differentiation in the family and (2) status and parental role differentiation explain a greater proportion of the variance in the gender-role socialization variables than maternal life style. Multiple regression analyses were carried out to determine which combination of life style and intervening variables would best predict gender-role responses. Collectively, the results indicated only modest relationships between maternal characteristics and girls' gender-role socialization. The appropriateness of this model for future research is discussed.Data reported here are from a study conducted while the senior author was a Charles Phelps Taft Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Sociology at the University of Cincinnati.     

Adaptive rewiring in weighted networks

Human connectome studies suggest that the brain has a modular small world network structure with rich-club effect. Such structure emerges spontaneously in simple model neural networks, (e.g. coupled maps), through adaptive rewiring according to the dynamic functional connectivity. The utility of adaptive rewiring has so far exclusively been demonstrated for unweighted networks; it is anything but guaranteed to work as well for weighted networks. We investigate adaptive rewiring in weighted networks, comparing various right-skewed, symmetrical, and left-skewed fixed weight distributions. We examine how network clustering, path length, modularity, and rich club coefficients develop for weakly, intermediate and strongly coupled networks. At low coupling strength, the weight distribution, as well as episodes of functional synchrony, have a significant effect on network evolution. With increased coupling strengths, all weighted networks robustly develop architectures similar to the unweighted ones. Adaptive rewiring appears relatively ineffective in networks with (biologically implausibly) extreme right-skewed weight distributions but performed most economically in biologically plausible log-normal distributions.     

The Effect Size of Variables Associated With Creativity: A Meta-Analysis

The main purpose of this study was to use meta-analysis to investigate the mean effect size of relevant variables associated with creative person, process, product, and environment. Altogether, 2,013 effect sizes from 111 studies were analyzed. The unweighted grand mean effect size of the 111 studies was 0.69, with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.63. Such result was significantly different from 0 at t (110) = 11.52, p < .01. When the averaged effect size of each study was weighted with the sample size of that study, the weighted grand mean effect size was 0.72. The important findings were: (a) the mean effect sizes associated with problem-solving creativity and verbal creativity were significantly larger than those associated with emotional creativity and nonverbal creativity, (b) variables having a large mean effect size were prestige of honors/awards, working circumstances favorable for creativity, defining problem, and retrieving knowledge, (c) most of the mean effect sizes of the problem solving procedures on the measures of problem solving exceeded the medium (0.5) of Cohen's guidelines. Areas to be further explored are suggested.     

An Asian Perspective on the Portrayal of Men and Women in Television Advertisements: Studies From Hong Kong and Indonesian Television

This paper reports on 2 studies with almost identical methodologies. Both were content analysis studies of the way that men and women are portrayed on television (TV) in South East Asia. One study was conducted in Hong Kong, where 175 TV advertisements were content analyzed. The other was conducted in Indonesia, where 119 TV advertisements were content analyzed. In Hong Kong, 9 of the 10 content categories yielded a significant gender-role effect, particularly mode of presentation, credibility, and role. In Indonesia, 9 of the 11 gender-role effects were significant, particularly reward type and product type. The fact that Asian TV commercials seem to have greater gender-role stereotypes than do Western commercials is discussed. Difficulties associated with cross-cultural comparisons of this type of data are discussed.     

Comments on median split procedures for scoring androgyny measures

With Bem's shift from advocacy of t-difference to median split procedures for scoring the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), all the major androgyny measures are now scored according to median splits. These comments are directed to ward differences in interpretation of the scale as a result of varying scoring methods, and the psychometric problems introduced by median split procedures.     

Gender Role Self-concept, Gender-role Conflict, and Well-being in Male Primary School Teachers

In this field-study, we analysed the interrelations between gender role self-concept, gender-role conflict, and well-being in male primary school teachers. Our sample comprised N = 81 respondents from an urban area in Germany (average age: 42.9 years; average tenure: 11.4 years). In Germany, primary school teaching is a numerically female-dominated occupation. We found that masculinity, femininity, and androgyny positively influenced well-being, while gender-role conflict was negatively interrelated with well-being. We expected that gender-role conflict weakens the positive effects of masculinity and femininity. Unexpectedly, we even found a detrimental effect of femininity when gender-role conflict was high: For respondents reporting comparatively high gender-role conflict, femininity was associated with lower work satisfaction.     

Gender-Role Differences in Susceptibility to the Influence of Support Availability on Depression

Previous gender-role research on depression has revealed a consistent inverse relationship between masculinity and depression, but a non-significant relationship between femininity and depression. In light of the stronger affiliative needs for feminine individuals, received social support was speculated to moderate the relationship between femininity and depression in the present research. In a longitudinal study of a sample of Hong Kong college students, the relationships among gender-role orientation, received social support, and depression were examined. Consistent with previous findings, masculinity and androgyny were inversely related to depression. Moreover, the present study supplemented previous research by revealing that femininity was related to depression through its interaction with received social support. When the amount of received social support was increased, femininity was associated with a reduction in depression level over time. In contrast, when the amount of received social support was decreased, depression tended to increase with femininity over time. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the gender-role literature.     

PREDICTING GENDER-ROLE ATTITUDES IN ADOLESCENT FEMALES

The contribution of ability, agency, and parental factors to the prediction of gender-role attitudes was investigated in a sample of 409 adolescent females enrolled in a private, college-preparatory high school. Results indicated that ability and agency were predictive of gender-role attitudes, whereas parental factors were not significant contributors. Recommendations for further research examining the etiology of gender-role attitudes are provided given the critical connection between gender-role attitudes and success in occupational and interpersonal areas for young women.     

An examination of how one's attitudes toward women are reflected in one's defensiveness and self-esteem

The Berger Self-Esteem Measure, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and Spence's (1972) Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) were used to test 96 undergraduates. Subjects were divided according to sex and median split scores on the personality measures. Analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect for sex and defensiveness and approached significance for the sex × self-esteem effect (p<.10). Males and females were found to respond significantly differently on the AWS scale. Highly defensive males were more discriminating toward women and self-concept appeared to be an influential variable. However, self-esteem alone did not seem to have any significant effects.