In the eyes of the beholder: Understanding subtypes of social withdrawal among young Chinese children

In this commentary on Ding et al. (Brit. J. Dev. Psychol., 2015; 33, 159–173), we focus on the following: (1) the authors’ use of vignettes portraying various prototypes of withdrawn children and (2) the cultural interpretation of their findings. We end with some suggestions for future research.     

Children's judgements of social withdrawal behaviours

Ding et al. (Brit. J. Dev. Psychol., 2015; 33, 159–173) demonstrated that Chinese children discriminate between the three subtypes of social withdrawal: Shyness, unsociability, and social avoidance. This commentary on the Ding et al.'s paper highlights the need to further explore the following: (1) children's understanding of the implications of being shy, unsociable, or socially avoidant, including assessing these which we know are associated with outcomes for socially withdrawn children; (2) what additional subtypes might exist naturally within the Chinese culture; and (3) consider the implications of social withdrawal on children's developing social skills.     

Culture,types of social withdrawal,and children's beliefs: An integrative perspective

Cultural norms and values provide guidance for children to judge and evaluate specific behavioural characteristics including shyness, unsociability, and social avoidance. The perceptions and attitudes of children, in turn, determine how they exhibit and regulate their behaviours and how they respond to peers' behaviours in social interactions. Investigation of children's beliefs across societies may shed some light on the processes in which culture is involved in shaping the display and developmental significance of different types of social withdrawal. To achieve a better understanding of the role of children's beliefs in mediating cultural influence on development, it will be important to examine how children's beliefs about withdrawn behaviours are associated with patterns of social interactions and relationships in various circumstances.     

Relations between Unsociability and Peer Problems in Chinese Children: Moderating Effect of Behavioural Control

Unsociable children are likely to develop adjustment difficulties in Chinese society. The primary goal of the present study was to examine the moderating effect of behavioural control on the relation between unsociability and peer problems in Chinese children. Participants were fourth to eighth grade students in urban China (N = 787). Assessments of unsociability, shyness, peer problems and behavioural control were obtained from peer nominations and teacher ratings. Results indicated that unsociability was positively related to peer problems in Chinese children after controlling for shyness. Also, the relation between unsociability and peer problems was attenuated among children with higher behavioural control. Thus, behavioural control may be a buffering factor that serves to protect unsociable children from developing peer problems. Gender and age also moderated these associations. Results are discussed in terms of the meaning and implications of unsociability and behavioural control in Chinese culture. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Starting small: Revisiting young children's perceptions of social withdrawal in China

In this reply to the commentaries by Xinyin Chen, Charissa Cheah, Yiyuan Xu, and Dawn Watling, we further discuss the conceptual and methodological challenges that arise when attempting to study beliefs about social withdrawal (1) in the unique cultural context of China and (2) in the unique developmental age period of early childhood.     

Assessment and Implications of Social Withdrawal Subtypes in Young Chinese Children: The Chinese Version of the Child Social Preference Scale

The authors’ goals were to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Child Social Preference Scale (CSPS; R. J. Coplan, K. Prakash, K. O'Neil, & M. Armer, 2004) and examine the links between both shyness and unsociability and indices of socioemotional functioning in young Chinese children. Participants included of two samples recruited from kindergarten classes in two public schools in Shanghai, China. Both samples included children 3–5 years old (Sample 1: n = 350, M_age = 4.72 years, SD = 0.58 years; Sample 2: n = 129, M_age = 4.40 years, SD = 0.58 years). In both samples, mothers rated children's social withdrawal using the newly created Chinese version of the CSPS, and in Sample 2, teachers also provided ratings of socioemotional functioning. Consistent with previous findings from other cultures, results from factor analyses suggested a 2-factor model for the CSPS (shyness and unsociability) among young children in China. In contrast to findings from North America, child shyness and unsociability were associated with socioemotional difficulties in kindergarten. Some gender differences were also noted. Results are discussed in terms of the assessment and implications of social withdrawal in early childhood in China.     

Assessment of children's social skills: A review of methods

Social skills of children is a topic receiving increasing attention, particularly from clinical researchers. The present paper reviews methods that have been used to assess children's social skills. Four methods are identified and described: sociometric instruments, behavioral observations, teacher reports, and child self-reports. Their relationships to one another are examined in terms of predictive, concurrent, and construct validity. It appears that the social skills construct is in need of basic development if it is to have any clinical utility. It is suggested that future research utilize knowledge from fields closely related to clinical psychology (e.g., developmental and social psychology) and methods of assessment from traditional test theory.     

The social side of shame: approach versus withdrawal

ABSTRACT

At present, the consequences and functions of experiences of shame are not yet well understood. Whereas psychology literature typically portrays shame as being bad for social relations, motivating social avoidance and withdrawal, there are recent indications that shame can be reinterpreted as having clear social tendencies in the form of motivating approach and social affiliation. Yet, until now, no research has ever put these alternative interpretations of shame-motivated behaviours directly to the test. The present paper presents such a test by studying the extent to which shame motivates a preference for social withdrawal versus a preference for social approach. Two studies (N?=?148 and N?=?133) using different shame inductions both showed people experiencing shame to prefer to be together with others (social approach) over being alone (social withdrawal). In addition, the preference for a social situation was found to be unique for shame; it was not found for the closely related emotion of guilt. Taken together, these findings provide direct empirical support for the idea that shame can have positive interpersonal consequences.     

Young children's beliefs about self‐disclosure of performance failure and success

Self‐disclosure of performance information involves the balancing of instrumental, learning benefits (e.g., obtaining help) against social costs (e.g., diminished reputation). Little is known about young children's beliefs about performance self‐disclosure. The present research investigates preschool‐ and early school‐age children's expectations of self‐disclosure in different contexts. In two experiments, 3‐ to 7‐year‐old children (total N = 252) heard vignettes about characters who succeeded or failed at solving a puzzle. Both experiments showed that children across all ages reasoned that people are more likely to self‐disclose positive than negative performances, and Experiment 2 showed that children across all ages reasoned that people are more likely to self‐disclose both positive and negative performances in a supportive than an unsupportive peer environment. Additionally, both experiments revealed changes with age – Younger children were less likely to expect people to withhold their performance information (of both failures and successes) than older children. These findings point to the preschool ages as a crucial beginning to children's developing recognition of people's reluctance to share performance information.     

新时代青少年羞怯对同伴侵害的影响：依存型和独立型自我建构的作用

本研究的主要目的是考察羞怯对同伴侵害的影响及潜在机制。1036名青少年(52%是男孩; M = 12.97 岁, SD = .76)完成了自评问卷。结果发现：(1)羞怯显著地正向预测青少年的同伴侵害;(2)自我建构调节了这一关系,依存型自我建构对羞怯个体的同伴问题具有保护作用,而独立型自我建构具有破坏作用;(3)性别对这一关系的调节作用并不显著。这些发现强调了在羞怯的适应功能研究中考虑文化的个人层面因素的重要性。     

Factors affecting the social validity of a role-play test of children's social skills

The social validity of a role-play test of children's social skills, the Social Skills Test for Children (SST-C), was evaluated by 63 subjects (33 adults and 30 children) who subjectively judged the quality of three children's role-play performances. The three children were selected as having high, medium, or low social skill based upon their performance on the SST-C. Assessment of the effects of subject characteristics upon judgments of social skill suggested that similarities in age and race between the subjects and the three children tended to diminish perceived differences in social skill among the three children. It was concluded that the social validity of the role-play test was supported only if the persons evaluating social behavior were dissimilar in age and racial characteristics from the persons who were being evaluated.     

社会不平等如何影响低地位者的系统合理信念

系统合理信念反映了人们的系统支持态度,即对社会系统公正性、合理性、正当性的感知,以及相应的支持和维护社会系统的态度。以往关于社会不平等与低地位者系统合理信念的关系形成了两种对立的理论观点。一方面,社会认同理论等自利取向的理论认为,严重的不平等不利于低地位者维护自我及内群体利益,因此会损害其系统合理信念;另一方面,系统合理化理论却提出,在不平等更极端（而非平等）的社会中,人们（甚至是低地位者）反而更可能合理化不平等,表现出更高的系统合理信念。实证研究中,两种观点分别得到了一些研究的支持,但同时也面临很多质疑。 面对上述分歧,本文提出了一个整合性的解释框架,即“社会不平等影响低地位者系统合理信念的双路径模型”。该模型认为,自利取向理论与系统合理化理论其实并不矛盾,而是共同解释了不平等与低地位者系统合理信念关系的“全貌”。因此,理论争议的焦点不在于不平等究竟增强还是减弱低地位者的系统合理信念,而在于分析不平等增强或减弱低地位者系统合理信念的不同条件（即认知基础）及其内在机制（即动机基础）。 第一,在认知基础方面,不同于以往研究仅关注不平等“量”的程度及其与系统合理信念的线性关系,该模型认为还应关注不平等“质”的差异及其不同效应,即关注低地位者对不平等的认知过程。一方面,严重的不平等损害低地位者个人或群体的现实利益,构成一种现实威胁;另一方面,严重不平等的社会现状与人们关于社会系统公正性、合理性的信念相冲突,构成一种象征威胁。 第二,在动机基础方面,低地位者的自利动机与系统合理化动机分别使其反对或维护不平等现状,且两种动机彼此冲突;不同于以往研究采用对立视角考察两种动机,或是过于强调二者之一的作用;该模型认为,两种动机是并存的,相互之间并非全或无的关系。因此有必要厘清二者发挥作用的条件,即什么影响二者孰强孰弱,又是什么决定了何者发挥主导作用。 第三,区分不平等“质”的差异是厘清自利动机与系统合理化动机如何发挥作用的关键。换言之,不同动机为低地位者反对或维护不平等现状提供了动力,而何种动机发挥主导作用则取决于低地位者如何对不平等进行认知。具体而言,当凸显不平等在个体或群体水平的现实威胁时,更可能激活低地位者的自利动机（进而抑制其系统合理化动机）,继而损害其系统合理信念;而当凸显不平等在系统水平的象征威胁时,更可能激活其系统合理化动机（进而抑制其自利动机）,继而增强其系统合理信念。 “双路径模型”通过分析不平等影响低地位者系统合理信念的不同认知基础,进而厘清不同动机的作用,将以往研究中看似矛盾的结论整合于一,为理解不平等对低地位者系统合理信念的影响、解释两种理论的“分歧”提供了一种整合框架,需要未来研究进一步检验和发展。     

The role of emotion knowledge in the links between shyness and children's socio‐emotional functioning at preschool

The present study investigated the potential protective role of components of emotion knowledge (i.e., emotion recognition, situation knowledge) in the links between young children's shyness and indices of socio‐emotional functioning. Participants were n = 163 children (82 boys and 81 girls) aged 23–77 months (M = 53.29, SD = 14.48), recruited from preschools in Italy. Parents provided ratings of child shyness and teachers rated children's socio‐emotional functioning at preschool (i.e., social competence, anxiety‐withdrawal, peer rejection). Children were also interviewed to assess their abilities to recognize facial emotional expressions and identify situations that affect emotions. Among the results, shyness was positively related to anxiety‐withdrawal and peer rejection. In addition, emotion recognition was found to significantly moderate the links between shyness and preschool socio‐emotional functioning, appearing to serve a buffering role. For example, at lower levels of emotion recognition, shyness was positively associated with both anxiety‐withdrawal and rejection by peers, but at higher levels of emotion recognition, these associations were attenuated. Results are discussed in terms of the protective role of emotion recognition in promoting shy children's positive socio‐emotional functioning within the classroom context.     

青少年早期社交回避与同伴关系问题:有调节的中介模型

为探讨青少年早期社交回避、同伴关系问题、情绪调节能力和学业成绩的关系,本研究构建了一个有调节的中介模型。采用自我报告、同伴提名和学校记录的方式对上海地区小学4年级至初中1年级共660名被试进行测查,结果显示:(1)社交回避可以正向预测同伴关系问题;(2)情绪调节能力在社交回避与同伴关系问题之间起部分中介作用;(3)学业成绩调节了社交回避通过情绪调节能力影响同伴关系问题的中介作用前半路径。相对于学业成绩较高的儿童,社交回避更容易通过学业成绩较低儿童的情绪调节能力影响同伴关系问题。研究结果不仅可以从情绪调节能力和学业成绩的角度为社交回避个体的同伴关系问题提供解释,而且对引导同伴社会化、提升社会适应的过程具有启示意义。     

幼儿害羞与社会适应:母亲教养方式的调节作用

本研究以487名幼儿为被试,探讨害羞与社会适应的关系,以及母亲教养方式在害羞与社会适应之间的调节作用。幼儿母亲完成儿童社会偏好量表和教养方式问卷,幼儿教师完成对幼儿社会适应的评价。结果表明:(1)害羞与不合群和同伴排斥显著正相关;(2)母亲教养方式在害羞与社会适应之间具有调节作用。具体来说,母亲温暖、说理和鼓励自主的教养方式可减弱害羞幼儿的消极适应,而体罚和指令型的教养方式会加剧害羞幼儿的消极适应。研究结果对于害羞幼儿的干预具有重要价值。     

4岁退缩儿童亚类型研究

本研究以4岁儿童为被试．通过对30分钟自由游戏的观察,其中的68名被鉴别为行为退缩儿童。聚类分析后他们被区分为三个亚类型,分别被命名为“被拒绝型”、“弱社交型”和“矛盾型”。在这三种退缩亚类型中,弱社交型退缩儿童所占比例最多,被拒绝型退缩儿童所占比例最少。4岁退缩儿童在性别比例上不存在差异,三个退缩亚类型的划分也与性别没有关系,这三种退缩亚类型的情绪和社会行为特征是不同的。     

自尊与社交焦虑的关系：基于中国学生群体的元分析

运用元分析方法探讨自尊与社交焦虑的关系。经过文献检索和筛选, 共纳入原始文献58篇, 含58个独立样本, 被试总数达32181名。根据同质性检验结果, 选择随机效应模型分析发现, 自尊与社交焦虑存在中等程度的负相关(r = -0.35, 95%CI为[-0.39, -0.31]), 社交焦虑测量工具类型能够显著调节两者的关系, 但性别和被试类型对二者的关系不存在显著的调节效应。结果表明个体的自尊水平与社交焦虑关系密切, 支持了自尊的恐惧管理理论和社交焦虑认知理论。未来应开展纵向研究或实验研究来揭示自尊与社交焦虑的因果关系。     

Precursors of social emotional functioning among full-term and preterm infants at 12 months: Early infant withdrawal behavior and symptoms of maternal depression

This study forms part of a longitudinal investigation of early infant social withdrawal, maternal symptoms of depression and later child social emotional functioning. The sample consisted of a group of full-term infants (N = 238) and their mothers, and a group of moderately premature infants (N = 64) and their mothers. At 3 months, the infants were observed with the Alarm Distress Baby Scale (ADBB) and the mothers completed the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). At 12 months, the mothers filled out questionnaires about the infants’ social emotional functioning (Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-Social Emotional). At 3 months, as we have previously shown, the premature infants had exhibited more withdrawal behavior and their mothers reported elevated maternal depressive symptoms as compared with the full-born group. At 12 months the mothers of the premature infants reported more child internalizing behavior. These data suggest that infant withdrawal behavior as well as maternal depressive mood may serve as sensitive indices of early risk status. Further, the results suggest that early maternal depressive symptoms are a salient predictor of later child social emotional functioning. However, neither early infant withdrawal behavior, nor gestational age, did significantly predict social emotional outcome at 12 months. It should be noted that the differences in strength of the relations between ADBB and EPDS, respectively, to the outcome at 12 months was modest. An implication of the study is that clinicians should be aware of the complex interplay between early infant withdrawal and signs of maternal postpartum depression in planning ports of entry for early intervention.