Children’s ADHD Symptoms and Friendship Patterns across a School Year

Symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in elementary school-age children are associated with poor relationships with classroom peers, as indicated by poor social preference, low peer support, and peer victimization. Less is known about how friendship patterns relate to ADHD symptoms, or how friendships may buffer risk for negative peer experiences. Participants were 558 children in 34 classrooms (grades K-5). At the beginning (fall) and end (spring) of an academic year, children completed (a) sociometric interviews to index friendship patterns and social preference, and (b) self-report questionnaires about their support and victimization experiences from classmates. In fall, higher teacher-reported ADHD symptoms were associated with children having more classmates with no friendship ties (non-friends) and who the child nominated but did not receive a nomination in return (unreciprocated friends), and with having fewer classmates with mutual friendship ties (reciprocated friends) and who nominated the child but the child did not nominate in return (unchosen friends). Higher fall ADHD symptoms predicted more non-friend classmates, poorer social preference, and more victimization in the spring, after accounting for the same variables in fall. However, having many reciprocated friends (and to a lesser extent, many unchosen friends) in fall buffered against the trajectory between fall ADHD symptoms and poor peer functioning in spring. By contrast, having many unreciprocated friends in fall exacerbated the trajectory between fall ADHD symptoms and poor peer functioning in spring. Thus, elevated ADHD symptoms are associated with poorer friendship patterns, but reciprocated friendship may protect against negative classroom peer experiences over time.

     

Friendship quality,social preference,proximity prestige,and self-perceived social competence: Interactive influences on children's loneliness

The purpose of this study was to test an integrative model in which peer relations at different levels of social complexity (friendship quality, social preference, and proximity prestige) are associated with children's loneliness, with children's self-perceived social competence acting as a mediator of these associations. A middle childhood sample of 509 Chinese children (233 girls and 276 boys; 3rd to 6th grade) completed a battery of sociometric and self-report questionnaires. Bootstrap analysis showed that self-perceived social competence mediated the relations between each peer variable and loneliness. In the integrative model tested with SEM, the mediating effect of self-perceived social competence in the relation between friendship quality and loneliness and between social preference and loneliness remained significant. However, self-perceived social competence no longer mediated the association between proximity prestige and loneliness, when considering the simultaneous influences of the three peer variables (friendship quality, social preference, and proximity prestige). The whole model accounted for 56% of the variance in loneliness. These findings suggest that self-perceived social competence played an important role in children's loneliness, that the quality and the quantity of direct peer relations (friendship quality, social preference, and part of proximity prestige) were associated with loneliness, and that indirect friends had a relatively lower but significant influence on children's loneliness. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for preventing children's loneliness.     

Investigating Friendship Difficulties in the Pathway from ADHD to Depressive Symptoms. Can Parent–Child Relationships Compensate?

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with friendship difficulties. This may partly account for the increasingly recognised association between ADHD and subsequent depression. Little is known about the types of friendship difficulties that could contribute to the association between ADHD and depressive symptoms and whether other relationships, such as parent–child relationships, can mitigate against potential adverse effects of friendship difficulties. In a representative UK school sample (n?=?1712), three main features of friendship (presence of friends, friendship quality and characteristics of the individual’s classroom friendship group) were assessed in a longitudinal study with two assessment waves (W1, W2) during the first year of secondary school (children aged 11-12 years). These friendship features (W1) were investigated as potential mediators of the prospective association between teacher-rated ADHD symptoms (W1) and self-rated depressive symptoms (W2) seven months later. Parent–child relationship quality (W1) was tested as a moderator of any indirect effects of ADHD on depression via friendship. ADHD symptoms were inversely associated with friendship presence, friendship quality and positive characteristics of classroom friendship groups. Depressive symptoms were inversely associated with presence and quality of friendships. Friendship quality had indirect effects in the association between ADHD and subsequent depressive symptoms. There was some evidence of moderated mediation, whereby indirect effects via friendship quality attenuated slightly as children reported warmer parent–child relationships. This highlights the importance of considering the quality of friendships and parent–child relationships in children with ADHD symptoms. Fostering good quality relationships may help disrupt the link between ADHD symptomology and subsequent depression risk.

     

Longitudinal Impact of Communication Patterns on Romantic Attachment and Symptoms of Depression

This study investigated how communication patterns, romantic attachment, symptoms of depression, and perceptions of relationship quality are related concurrently and prospectively within monogamous dating relationships. Participants completed two self-report assessments at six-month intervals. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that for males, mutual constructive communication was associated with decreases in depressive symptoms, whereas demand-withdraw communication was associated with increases in attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms from T1 to T2. The same variables were not associated with changes in attachment or depressive symptoms for females. Mixed model ANOVAs revealed insecure attachment, symptoms of depression, and negative perceptions of relationship quality were significantly higher for broken up individuals than for those whose relationships remained intact.     

Adolescent girls' interpersonal vulnerability to depressive symptoms: a longitudinal examination of reassurance-seeking and peer relationships

A transactional, interpersonal framework involving adolescents' reassurance-seeking and peer experiences may be useful for understanding the emergence of gender differences in depression prevalence during the adolescent transition. Sociometric nominations of peer acceptance/rejection and ratings of friendship quality provided by adolescents and their friends were used to measure peer experiences among 6th-8th-grade adolescents (N=520) over 3 annual time points. After controlling for age and pubertal development, significant but small prospective effects offered mixed support for hypotheses: (a) depressive symptoms and negative peer relations predicted increasing levels of girls' reassurance-seeking; (b) initial levels of reassurance-seeking and depressive symptoms predicted deteriorating friendship quality among girls and low friendship stability, respectively; and (c) reassurance-seeking combined with poor peer experiences predicted increases in girls' depressive symptoms.     

Bias and Accuracy of Children's Perceptions of Peer Acceptance: Prospective Associations with Depressive Symptoms

Are depressive symptoms in middle childhood associated with more or less realistic social self-perceptions? At the beginning and end of the school year, children in grades 3 through 5 (n=667) rated how much they liked their classmates, predicted the acceptance ratings they would receive from each of their classmates, and completed self-report measures of perceived acceptance and depressive symptoms. Accuracy of perceived acceptance was indexed by the mean difference between pairs of predicted and received ratings (absolute values). Standardized residual scores created by regressing self-reported perceived acceptance (either predicted ratings or children's responses to a questionnaire measure of perceived peer acceptance) onto peer acceptance ratings formed two measures of bias. Bi-directional associations were found for accuracy of perceived acceptance and depressive symptoms; inaccurate perceptions predicted increases in depressive symptoms and depressive symptoms predicted decreased accuracy. Neither measure of bias predicted changes in depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms predicted increases in negatively biased perceptions as assessed via questionnaire.     

Family,friend, and neighbour child care providers and maternal well‐being in low‐income systems: An ecological social perspective

Integrating theory from the family ecological systems and social support literatures with findings from child care research, in this study we develop and test a model relating family, friend, and neighbour (FFN) child care provider characteristics to perceived child care quality (provider reports of caregiving behaviours, mother‐provider caregiving relationship) and maternal well‐being (work‐family conflict, depressive symptoms). Results from phone interviews with 187 FFN providers receiving public subsidies indicated that even after controlling for familial status or household income, caregiver perceptions of higher quality care were associated with higher education levels, greater attachment to child care as a job; and lower provider depressive symptoms. After controlling for familial status, data analysed from a subset of 51 mother‐provider pairs, indicated that mothers using care from providers who reported higher quality parent‐caregiver social relationships reported lower work‐family conflict and depressive symptoms. This study suggests mothers who have providers with whom they have good caregiving interactions may experience positive social support and psychological crossover dynamics associated with mother well‐being.     

I am happy in my faith: the influence of religious affiliation,saliency, and practice on depressive symptoms and treatment preference

Religion is thought to significantly impact numerous areas of mental health, including depression. Using a 63-item questionnaire, the influence of religious affiliation, saliency, and practice on levels of depressive symptoms and treatment preference in a non-clinical sample of Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics (N = 471) was investigated. No significant differences in depressive symptoms were found between affiliations. Saliency and frequency of practice had a weak negative correlation with depressive symptoms for Christians, but were not significant for Muslim participants. No significant differences of preference were found between affiliations for social, cognitive, and medical treatments. Treatment preference of religious-based treatments differed significantly between affiliations. Findings suggest that affiliation is not significantly related to depressive symptoms or treatment preference, and the influence of saliency and practice differs between religions. Limitations and implications of the current study are discussed, and directions for further research are identified.     

Effects of Prolongea Isolation in Extreme Environments on Stress,Coping, and Depression1

This influence of prolongea isolation in an extreme environment on depressive symptoms, personality, and coping resources was examined in 121 members of the United States Antarctic Program in 1988–1989. Subjects were followed for a 1-year period in Antarctica. Winter-over personnel experienced an increase in depressive symptoms, avoidance as a coping method, and emotional discharge as a coping resource from baseline (T₀) to Year-1 (T₁). At T₀, education, negative life events, job-related stress, low self-confidence, active cognitive and behavioral coping methods, and low satisfaction with social support were independent predictors of depressive symptoms. At T₁, negative life events, low self-confidence, active behavioral and avoidance coping methods, affective regulation as a coping resource, and low satisfaction with social support were independent predictors of depressive symptoms. However, with the exception of T₀ depressive symptoms, none of the social and demographic characteristics and T₀ psychosocial measures predicted T₁ depressive symptoms. The results of this study support the hypothesis that coping may be more strongly associated with environmental conditions that influence severity of stressor and availability of coping resources than with more remote and stable background factors.     

STRESS, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND HEALTH IN MARRIED PROFESSIONAL WOMEN WITH SMALL CHILDREN

Two hundred married professional women with small children were surveyed to investigate what types of occupational and role-conflict stresses are associated with physical and depressive symptoms, and whether social support could protect individuals from the negative health effects of stress. Six stress indices predicted physical and depressive symptoms, both Concurrently and 1 year later. These stresses reflected perceptions of lack of authority and influence on the job, sex discrimination, a heavy work load, work imposing on relaxation, family imposing on relaxation, and overall suffering from role conflict. Social support yielded no stress-buffering effects.     

Social Surrogacy and Adjustment: Exploring the Correlates of Having a “Social Helper” for Shy and Non-Shy Young Adolescents

A social surrogate is an individual who offers help and comfort in social situations or makes social events more exciting. In this study of 157 young adolescents (55% female; M_age = 13.84 years, SD = 0.75 years), the authors examined whether the linear and curvilinear associations between self-reported social surrogate use and adjustment outcomes (social problems, loneliness, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms) varied as a function of shyness and gender, after accounting for the effects of positive friendship quality. Regression analyses revealed that low and high levels of social surrogate use were related to greater social problems for all adolescents. In addition, shyness emerged as a moderator for several curvilinear effects. Specifically, results indicated that (a) high levels of social surrogate use were associated with greater anxiety for adolescents high in shyness; and (b) low levels of social surrogate use were associated with greater depressive symptoms for adolescents low in shyness. Findings highlight the developmental importance of specific types of relationship experiences during early adolescence and point to different implications of social surrogate use for shy and non-shy young adolescents.     

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal associations in coping strategies and physical health outcomes among HIV-Positive youth

This study assessed whether coping styles had an influence on physical health outcomes either concurrently or longitudinally in a sample of HIV-positive youth. Coping styles were characterized as positive, passive, depressive withdrawal, and escapist. A cross-sectional latent variable analysis (N = 279) assessed associations among environmental stress, self-esteem, social support, coping styles, AIDS symptoms, and CD4 count. A more restricted longitudinal analysis (N = 174) tested associations among earlier environmental stress, self-esteem, coping styles, and AIDS symptoms at follow-up. CD4 count was not associated with coping styles in the cross-sectional analysis. Concurrent AIDS symptoms were significantly predicted by depressive withdrawal and environmental stress. A passive coping style modestly predicted more AIDS symptoms longitudinally. Correlates of perceived health and well-being of persons with HIV/AIDS are important to investigate in addition to more objective measures such as CD4 count that may not be amenable to change through coping style interventions alone.     

Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses

The extent to which loneliness is a unique risk factor for depressive symptoms was determined in 2 population-based studies of middle-aged to older adults, and the possible causal influences between loneliness and depressive symptoms were examined longitudinally in the 2nd study. In Study 1, a nationally representative sample of persons aged 54 and older completed a telephone interview as part of a study of health and aging. Higher levels of loneliness were associated with more depressive symptoms, net of the effects of age, gender, ethnicity, education, income, marital status, social support, and perceived stress. In Study 2, detailed measures of loneliness, social support, perceived stress, hostility, and demographic characteristics were collected over a 3-year period from a population-based sample of adults ages 50-67 years from Cook County, Illinois. Loneliness was again associated with more depressive symptoms, net of demographic covariates, marital status, social support, hostility, and perceived stress. Latent variable growth models revealed reciprocal influences over time between loneliness and depressive symptomatology. These data suggest that loneliness and depressive symptomatology can act in a synergistic effect to diminish well-being in middle-aged and older adults.     

Impact of Low Social Preference on the Development of Depressive and Aggressive Symptoms: Buffering by Children’s Prosocial Behavior

Holding a low social position among peers has been widely demonstrated to be associated with the development of depressive and aggressive symptoms in children. However, little is known about potential protective factors in this association. The present study examined whether increases in children’s prosocial behavior can buffer the association between their low social preference among peers and the development of depressive and aggressive symptoms in the first few school years. We followed 324 children over 1.5 years with three assessments across kindergarten and first grade elementary school. Children rated the (dis)likability of each of their classroom peers and teachers rated each child’s prosocial behavior, depressive and aggressive symptoms. Results showed that low social preference at the start of kindergarten predicted persistent low social preference at the start of first grade in elementary school, which in turn predicted increases in both depressive and aggressive symptoms at the end of first grade. However, the indirect pathways were moderated by change in prosocial behavior. Specifically, for children whose prosocial behavior increased during kindergarten, low social preference in first grade elementary school no longer predicted increases in depressive and aggressive symptoms. In contrast, for children whose prosocial behavior did not increase, their low social preference in first grade elementary school continued to predict increases in both depressive and aggressive symptoms. These results suggest that improving prosocial behavior in children with low social preference as early as kindergarten may reduce subsequent risk of developing depressive and aggressive symptom.     

Social Support,Conflict, and Integration Among Women Living With HIV/AIDS1

The relationship between depressive symptoms and perceptions of available social support, social conflict, and subjective social integration were examined as part of a psychosocial study of Puerto Rican, African American, and non‐Hispanic White women living with HIV/AIDS (N= 146) in New York City. Lower levels of subjective social integration and higher levels of social conflict were associated with more depressive symptoms. Perceived availability of social support was not significantly associated with depression in comparison with these other forms of support. No evidence was found for a stress‐buffering or a stress‐amplification effect. Significant ethnic differences in levels of social integration and social conflict also were noted. Results suggest that intervention efforts should go beyond addressing support to further address the conflict and lack, of integration experienced.     

Presence and quality of kindergarten children's friendships: concurrent and longitudinal associations with child adjustment in the early school years

The presence and quality of friendships are posited to have developmental significance, yet little is known about the extent to which children without friends versus low‐quality friendships compare on socioemotional adjustment. The current study utilized data from a subsample of 567 children (289 boys) participating in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Based on maternal reports at kindergarten, four friendship groups were formed: no friends, low quality, average quality, and high quality, and these groups were used to predict teacher‐reported behaviour problems and social skills concurrently (in kindergarten) and longitudinally (in first and third grade). Concurrently, low‐quality friendships were associated with greater externalizing behaviour, whereas high‐quality friendships were associated with greater social skills. Longitudinally, having no friends in kindergarten was associated with higher levels of externalizing behaviour for boys, but lower levels for girls. Children without friends also showed more internalizing problems at first grade. Lastly, having a high‐quality friendship in kindergarten was associated with greater social skills in first and third grades, but only for boys. Results underscore high‐quality friendship as a context for the development of social skills and indicate different trajectories of problem behaviour for kindergarten children with no friends versus low‐quality friendships. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

童年中期同伴关系与孤独感的中介变量检验

以571名小学三、四、五、六年级的儿童为被试,考察了儿童社会喜好、友谊质量、社交自我知觉与孤独感的关系,检验了社交自我知觉在同伴关系变量与孤独感间的中介作用。结果表明,社会喜好、友谊质量、社交自我知觉和孤独感间相关显著,并且存在显著的性别差异;社交自我知觉在同伴关系变量与孤独感间存在中介的作用;独立的中介效应检验中,社会喜好、友谊质量均通过社交自我知觉的中介作用与孤独感发生联系,同时,也存在直接的联系;综合模型中,社会喜好只通过社交自我知觉的中介作用与孤独感产生联系,不存在直接效应,而友谊质量与孤独感既存在中介的联系,同时也存在直接联系。     

Callous-Unemotional Traits are Uniquely Associated with Poorer Peer Functioning in School-Aged Children

This study examines externalizing symptoms (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], conduct problems, and callous-unemotional [CU] traits) in relation to domains of peer functioning (social competence, loneliness, and close friendship quality), with a specific focus on the role of CU traits. One hundred twenty-four elementary students (grades 3–6; 45% boys) completed multiple measures of peer functioning, and teachers completed measures of externalizing symptoms and social competence. After controlling for demographic variables and other externalizing symptoms, CU traits were significantly associated with poorer peer functioning across all variables except for demands of exclusivity in close friendships. ADHD symptoms were also uniquely associated with poorer social functioning across a number of variables. In contrast, conduct problems were at times associated with better social functioning after controlling for the effects of other externalizing problems. These findings bolster the importance of developing and evaluating social skills interventions for children displaying elevated CU traits.     

Assessing peer network and dyadic loneliness

Describes the Peer Network and Dyadic Loneliness Scale (PNDLS), a new scale designed to assess simultaneously children's loneliness at multiple levels of peer relationships. Specifically, this scale measures loneliness associated with (a) lack of involvement in a social network and (b) the absence of a close dyadic friendship. Employing a sample of 209 5th-, 6th-, and 7th-grade boys and girls, the psychometric properties, interscale correlations, and preliminary validity data for the new scale are examined. Analyses revealed good internal consistency and a pattern of relationships with other loneliness, friendship quality, mutual best friendship, and sociometric social preference variables supporting the validity of the new scale.     

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Social Preference During the Early School Years: Mediation by Maternal Warmth and Child Emotion Regulation

This longitudinal study examined processes that mediate the association between maternal depressive symptoms and peer social preference during the early school years. Three hundred and fifty six kindergarten children (182 boys) and their mothers participated in the study. During kindergarten, mothers reported their level of depressive symptomatology. In first grade, teachers rated children’s emotion regulation at school and observers rated the affective quality of mother-child interactions. During second grade, children’s social preference was assessed by peer nomination. Results indicated that mothers’ level of depressive symptomatology negatively predicted their child’s social preference 2 years later, controlling for the family SES and teacher-rated social preference during kindergarten. Among European American families, the association between maternal depressive symptoms and social preference was partially mediated by maternal warmth and the child’s emotion regulation. Although the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and children peer preference was stronger among African American families than Europrean American families, its mediation by the maternal warmth and child’s emotion regulation was not found in African American families.