Simulating the variability of actual outcomes

A method is described for simulating the variability of outcomes encountered in a variety of settings. Outcome values falling within a specified range are randomly generated and presented across subjects and trials, so that, over time, the average values seen by all subjects in a condition are the same. Randomly varying reinforcement dimensions (such as magnitude) over trials for each subject is recommended to enhance both the internal and the external validity of laboratory results. In addition, it can be used to study the effects of the variability or uncertainty of outcome dimensions such as magnitude and duration in investigations of behaviors such as matching, melioration, and behavioral momentum.     

On emotional innumeracy: Predicted and actual affective responses to grand-scale tragedies

The present research demonstrates that people overestimate the intensity of their emotional responses to grand-scale tragedies. Participants predicted that they would feel significantly worse if thousands of people were killed in a disaster than if only a few people were killed, and yet they exhibited an “emotional flatline,” feeling equally sad regardless of the number of people killed. This unforeseeable emotional flatline was demonstrated in response to deaths stemming from human violence and natural disasters, both close to home and far away (including hurricanes in the United States, a forest fire in Spain, and the Iraq War). Participants’ actual emotional responses were calibrated with fatalities only when abstract death tolls were translated into concrete images. We argue that affective forecasts and emotional experiences may arise from separate systems, leading to reliable forecasting errors, as well as influencing subsequent judgments.     

A joint modeling framework of responses and response times to assess learning outcomes

Abstract

A general modeling framework of response accuracy and response times is proposed to track skill acquisition and provide additional diagnostic information on the change of latent speed in a learning environment. This framework consists of two types of models: a dynamic response model that captures the response accuracy and the change of discrete latent attribute profile upon factors such as practice, intervention effects, and other latent and observable covariates, and a dynamic response time model that describes the change of the continuous response latency due to change of latent attribute profile. These two types of models are connected through a parameter, describing the change rate of the latent speed through the learning process, and a covariate defined as a function of the latent attribute profile. A Bayesian estimation procedure is developed to calibrate the model parameters and measure the latent variables. The estimation algorithm is evaluated through several simulation studies under various conditions. The proposed models are applied to a real data set collected through a spatial rotation diagnostic assessment paired with learning tools.     

Perceived and actual control in EMG treatment of back pain

The aim of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that the perception of the apparent amount of voluntary control over muscle activity determines the efficacy of EMG biofeedback treatment in back-pain patients. Twenty-four patients with nonorganic or minor organic back pain were randomly assigned to three training conditions: low-success, high-success and linear feedback of training performance. Contrary to expectations about the relationship between perceived control over muscle tension and pain, no differences in the effects of treatment were found between these three experimental groups. Statistically and clinically significant treatment gains were, however, found in all groups. Thus, the hypothesis of a relationship between perceived muscle tension reduction and pain reports in chronic back-pain patients is not confirmed. After a close analysis of the training sessions, and the muscle activity reduction actually obtained, an alternative hypothesis about EMG biofeedback training procedures is formulated.     

A comparison of self-nominated and actual speeds in work zones

Despite significant research on drivers’ speeding behavior in work zones, little is known about how well drivers’ judgments of appropriate speeds match their actual speeds and what factors influence their judgments. This study aims to fill these two important gaps in the literature by comparing observed speeds in two work zones with drivers’ self-nominated speeds for the same work zones. In an online survey, drivers nominated speeds for the two work zones based on photographs in which the actual posted speed limits were not revealed. A simultaneous equation modeling approach was employed to examine the effects of driver characteristics on their self-nominated speeds. The results showed that survey participants nominated lower speeds (corresponding to higher compliance rates) than those which were observed. Higher speeds were nominated by males than females, young and middle aged drivers than older drivers, and drivers with truck driving experience than those who drive only cars. Larger differences between nominated and observed speeds were found among car drivers than truck drivers. These differences suggest that self-nominated speeds might not be valid indicators of the observed work zone speeds and therefore should not be used as an alternative to observed speed data.     

The influence of pre-training evaluative responses on approach-avoidance training outcomes

ABSTRACT

Approach-avoidance training (AAT) has been shown to be effective in both clinical and laboratory research. However, some studies have failed to show the effects of AAT. Therefore, finding moderators of the AAT effect is a priority for further research. We investigate the moderating effect of pre-training evaluative responses towards familiar AAT targets. In particular, we test predictions: (a) that congruent responses (i.e. approach to positive targets and avoidance of negative targets) increase liking, whereas incongruent responses decrease liking; (b) that training is more effective when it can strengthen existing positivity or negativity; and (c) that ambivalence increases AAT effects. Two experiments (total N?=?132) implemented an AAT with local soft-drink brands after measuring initial positive/negative explicit evaluative components and implicit liking towards the brands. Results show no reliable evidence for training effects on consumption or rating of drinks, but participants showed more implicit liking of approached drinks than avoided drinks. Furthermore, the magnitude of implicit liking measured pre-training was positively related to the size of the training effect. Ambivalence had no direct effect on the training outcomes. These results partially support the congruency prediction and underline the importance of implicit liking prior to AAT as a moderator for AAT effects.     

Effects of an institutional environment on responses to uncontrollable outcomes

Students from two different high schools were compared in a learned helplessness experiment using a yoked triadic design and noncontingent rewards. Students attending a traditional type of school showed a marked performance deficit, whereas students attending a school organized in accordance with an open plan approach showed no effect. Implications of the results for models of human helplessness are discussed.     

A taxometric analysis of actual Internet sports gambling behavior

This article presents findings from the first taxometric study of actual gambling behavior to determine whether we can represent the characteristics of extreme gambling as qualitatively distinct (i.e., taxonic) or as a point along a dimension. We analyzed the bets made during a 24-month study period by the 4,595 most involved gamblers among a cohort of 48,114 people using an Internet service to gamble on sporting events. We applied two taxometric procedures (i.e., MAMBAC and MAXCOV) to three indicators of betting behavior: total money lost, total number of bets, and total money wagered. The results fail to provide support for the view that the most involved Internet sports gamblers include a distinct category of gamblers. More research is necessary to clarify the similar features of recreational and extreme gamblers and the dimensions that scientists can use to measure these behaviors. Finally, we discuss the implications of these findings for clinical, research, and public policy activities.     

Expected,ideal, and actual relational outcomes of emerging adults' “hook ups”

Despite the prevalence of “hooking up” among emerging adults, little is known about the outcomes of these encounters. A sample of 348 college students completed a survey on expected, ideal, and actual relational outcomes of hook ups (assessed at a 10‐week follow‐up). Results showed that most men and women expected outcomes involving minimal commitment (i.e., nothing more, continued sexual involvement). Ideal outcomes of hook ups differed by gender, with women more often hoping for romantic involvement, and men more likely to view continued sexual involvement as ideal. Actual outcomes varied, with continued sexual involvement the most common outcome (32.2%), followed by friendship (27.7%), romantic involvement (23.2%), and nothing more (17%); 43.8% of participants experienced fulfillment of ideal outcomes.     

A method of scalogram analysis using summary statistics

A method of Guttman scalogram analysis is presented that does not involve sorting and rearranging the entries in the item response matrix. The method requires dichotomous items. Formulas are presented for estimating the reproducibility of the scale and estimating the expected value of the chance reproducibility. An index of consistency is suggested for evaluating the reproducibility. An illustrative example is presented in detail. The logical basis of the method is discussed. Finally, several methods are suggested for dealing with non-dichotomous items.Lois K. Anderson assisted the author materially in the many computations required for this paper. The research reported in this paper was supported in part by the Department of Economics and Social Sciences at M.I.T. and in part, jointly, by the Army, Navy and Air Force under contract with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.     

Moderation of the effects of discrimination-induced affective responses on health outcomes

Objective: The goal of the study was to examine differential mediation of long-term effects of discrimination on health behaviour and health status by internalising (anxiety and depression) and externalising (hostility and anger), and to explore moderation of these effects, specifically, by the presence of support networks and coping tendencies.

Design: The current analyses employed structural equation modelling of five waves of data from Black female participants of the Family and Community Health Study over 11 years (M age 37–48).

Main Outcomes Measures: The main outcome variables were health status and alcohol use (frequency and problematic consumption).

Results: Perceived racial discrimination was associated with increases in internalising and externalising. In addition, internalising reactions to discrimination were associated with deterioration in health status and increases in problematic drinking; externalising reactions were associated with increases in frequency of drinking. These relations were attenuated by availability of support networks, and exacerbated by use of avoidance coping.

Conclusion: The current study (a) replicated previous research suggesting that two different types of affective reactions mediate the relations between perceived racial discrimination and physical health status vs. health-impairing behaviours: internalising and externalising, and (b) revealed moderation of these effects by coping mechanisms.     

Perceived and actual ages of workers

An inventory investigating the perceived average age of people employed in various occupations was administered to 150 respondents. The results suggest that certain occupations are perceived as occupied by relatively young individuals and others by older workers. Subjects' perceptions of the average age of people employed in various occupations were found to be basically in agreement with the actual age of workers in the occupations listed on the questionnaire. The data also revealed significant relationships between the age of the respondent and perceived average age of workers. The results are discussed in terms of the implications they provide for future research focused on the assessment of age stereotypes of occupations.     

A standardized behavioral group treatment program for obsessive-compulsive disorder: preliminary outcomes

This paper provides outcome data about the efficacy of a behavioral group therapy program for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Thirty-six patients completed a 7-week outpatient treatment program which provides: (1) education about OCD and its treatment, (2) instruction in a cognitive and behavioral approach to the self-treatment of OCD and (3) guided behavioral treatment. Significant improvement in obsession, compulsion, and depression scores were observed at completion of the group and at 3 month follow-up. Significant improvement in obsessions and compulsions was observed for both patients taking anti-obsessional medications and those who did not.     

Impact of language on behavior treatment outcomes

Resurgence of problem behavior following effective functional communication training (FCT) can occur if the functional communication response contacts extinction. For children from dual-language households, extinction may unintentionally occur due to language variations among communication partners. In the current study, the experimenters evaluated the effect of language on FCT outcomes. Participants were 3 children with autism who engaged in problem behavior and whose parents reported Spanish as the primary home language. The experimenters conducted FCT in the English language followed by probes in the Spanish language. Results suggest that functional communication responses (FCRs) learned in the first language (English) may lead to resurgence of problem behavior when English FCRs do not contact reinforcement in the untaught language (e.g., Spanish). Two of the participants required additional teaching in the secondary language (Spanish), while the third participant eventually emitted Spanish FCRs in the Spanish condition without explicit teaching.     

A matter of time: actual time and the production of the past

In psychoanalytic theory, space metaphors are frequently used to describe the psychic apparatus. As for time, it is traditionally invoked under the heading of timelessness of the unconscious, more aptly described as the resistance of the repressed to wearing away with time. This paper examines how the insertion of time into psychic events and structural differentiation form a single process. After looking into the parallelism between phenomenological and psychoanalytic views of time and differentiation, the author draws a distinction between two time categories: chronological versus actual. A clinical example is presented.