不同学习目标条件下学习时间分配的习惯性反应

采用眼动记录技术,探讨不同学习目标条件下词对位置对学习时间分配的影响。实验结果发现：在高学习目标条件下,词对位置对项目选择存在显著影响,对自定步调学习时间不存在显著影响;在低学习目标下,词对位置对项目选择和自定步调学习时间均不存在显著影响。表明议程驱动和习惯性反应是影响学习时间分配的两种认知机制,学习者会根据学习情境采用议程驱动或习惯性反应来有效地进行学习时间分配,以最小的努力实现学习目标。     

自定步调学习时间的习惯性反应：来自眼动的证据

习惯性反应指学习者根据自身阅读习惯来进行学习时间分配,它通常由词对位置这一外部线索激发。研究运用眼动记录技术,采用Metcalfe范式探讨词对位置和难度对学习时间分配的影响,以检验自定步调学习时间的习惯性反应。结果发现：（1）在自定步调总学习时间上,学习者倾向于对难度越大的项目分配越多的学习时间;（2）在前期自定步调学习进程上,当词对位置为易-中-难条件时,学习者倾向于优先在容易项目上分配较多的学习时间,接着是中等难度项目,最后是困难项目;当词对位置为难-中-易条件时,结果相反。这说明学习者的自定步调总学习时间受项目难度驱动,而前期自定步调学习时间受习惯性反应影响。     

议程与习惯性反应对学习时间分配的影响：来自眼动的证据

采用眼动记录技术,操作三种词对位置,探讨议程与习惯性反应对学习时间分配的影响。实验一设置无时间限制条件,结果发现,20名大学生被试均优先选择左边的项目,项目的自定步调学习时间不存在词对位置效应。结果表明,被试的习惯性反应影响项目选择,不影响自定步调学习时间。实验二设置有时间限制条件,结果发现,20名大学生被试均优先选择容易项目并分配更多的时间学习容易项目,且容易项目的选择存在词对位置效应。结果表明,议程驱动主导被试的项目选择和自定步调学习时间,但不能完全消除习惯性反应对项目选择的影响。     

加工流畅性对学习判断字体大小效应的影响

以自定步调学习时间和习得试验次数为加工流畅性指标,通过操纵不同字号的词对考察了加工流畅性对学习判断字体大小效应的影响。结果发现：（1）字体大小影响学习判断,但不影响回忆成绩;（2）不同字体大小的词对在加工流畅性（学习时间和学习次数）上存在差异,仅自定步调学习时间测量的加工流畅性对学习判断字体大小效应有贡献。这些结果说明学习判断的字体大小效应是一种元认知错觉现象,部分支持了加工流畅性假说。     

学习不良儿童元记忆监测与控制的发展

采用2×3×2的混合设计,在自定步调和对项目逐项评定的学习条件下,对小学四~六年级学习不良儿童的元记忆监测与时间分配策略进行了实验研究。结果表明：在对学习材料难度的有效区分上,学习不良儿童与对照组儿童间无差异,不论学习不良组还是对照组,四年级儿童均不能对实验中配对学习材料难度性质做出明确区分,五、六年级儿童能够很好的区分学习材料难度;在学习判断水平上,五、六年级学习不良儿童均低于对照组儿童,四年级两组之间无差异;从对不同难度学习材料的时间分配来看,四年级学习不良儿童与对照组儿童分配在不同难度材料上的学习时间均无显著差别。五、六年级对照组儿童能够根据学习材料的不同难度分配不同学习时间,而且学习时间分配与难度判断之间存在显著相关。五、六年级学习不良儿童能在一定程度上根据学习材料的不同难度分配不同的学习时间,但这种时间分配与难度判断之间相关未达到显著水平,提示他们尚不能在有效元记忆监测基础上对不同难度学习材料进行合理的时间分配     

部分线索效应中的记忆监控

通过三个实验,利用学习时间分配作为指标,考察了学习者对部分线索效应记忆监控的状况。实验1考察被试在单次学习条件下的学习时间分配情况,结果发现被试在两种条件下所使用的学习时间没有明显差异。这说明在一次学习后被试还不能对部分线索的消极作用进行有效控制。实验2中,经过多次学习后,被试在部分线索条件下使用了更多的学习时间。实验3在自控步调学习前加入回溯性任务难度判断任务,结果发现经过一次学习,部分线索组和自由回忆组的判断值虽无显著差异,但部分线索组的自控步调学习时间显著长于自由回忆组,并且其回忆成绩也显著提高,说明回溯性任务难度判断过程本身是学习时间分配的制约因素。研究说明,为了加速主体对部分线索的消极影响的控制,引导主体对学习任务进行难度判断是一种有效的手段。     

项目难度与分值对自定步调学习时间的影响

为了探讨项目难度与分值对自定步调学习时间的影响及学习时间分配的内在机制。实验1a和实验1b分别检验项目难度与分值对自定步调学习时间的影响,发现学习者倾向于将更多学习时间分配到困难或高分值的项目上;实验2设置”难1分项目-中5分项目-易5分项目”和“难1分项目-中1分项目-易5分项目”两种情境,在前者中发现难1分项目与中5分项目的自定步调学习时间显著多于易5分项目,后者中发现难1分项目的自定步调学习时间显著多于中1分项目和易5分项目,表明了学习者在自定步调学习中存在权衡过程。     

外在奖赏对陈述性记忆的影响

学习和记忆是个体赖以生存和发展的前提,如何取得好的学习和记忆效果是心理学和神经科学关注的重点。近年来,许多研究揭示奖赏可以促进记忆效果,奖赏对记忆的影响逐渐成为心理学和神经科学的热点研究课题。大脑的中脑多巴胺奖赏系统与海马记忆系统在结构和功能上均有关联。奖赏通过编码和巩固阶段以不同机制对记忆效果产生作用：在记忆编码阶段,奖赏会激活奖赏系统、注意控制系统,将更多认知资源分配给奖赏相关信息,从而促进奖赏信息的记忆效果;在记忆巩固阶段,奖赏会促进多巴胺释放,作用于海马对奖赏相关信息的加工,从而促进奖赏信息的记忆效果。未来研究可以关注奖赏对行为影响的复杂模式和内在奖赏对学习记忆的影响等方面。     

基于价值的议程对学习时间分配影响的眼动研究

通过对比不同梯度下, 分值激发的议程与习惯性反应作用一致、不一致条件中, 优先选择项目和学习时间的差异, 考察基于价值的议程对学习时间分配的影响及其动态过程。结果发现：(1)等分值条件下, 汉语为母语被试存在从左到右的习惯性反应。(2)分值梯度对基于议程的学习时间分配的有效性具有调节作用。小分值梯度(1分、5分)激发的议程能够克服习惯性反应对学习时间分配的影响, 但不能使被试建立起优先学习高价值项目的议程; 大分值梯度(1分、10分)能够克服习惯性反应对学习时间分配影响, 且能够使被试建立起优先学习高价值项目的议程。(3)基于议程调节的学习时间分配在时程和阶段上具有动态性和情境特异性。     

学习困难儿童元记忆能力的实验研究

该研究以有和无意义联系的两种中文词对为材料,采用2×3×2混合实验设计,对小学三到五年级的学习困难儿童与学优儿童的JOL监测判断水平和学习时间分配之间的差异及其发展特点进行研究。结果表明：（1）学习困难儿童的JOL判断等级显著低于学优儿童;（2）在自定步骤学习过程中,随着年级增长,学习困难儿童能够根据学习材料的性质决定其学习时间的分配策略,表现出一定的元记忆控制能力,但其分配策略的有效性不高;（3）学习困难儿童的JOL监测判断水平和学习时间分配策略从小三到小五在缓慢提高;（4）学习困难儿童的JOL监测判断和学习时间分配之间存在交互影响。     

Easily perceived, easily remembered? Perceptual interference produces a double dissociation between metamemory and memory performance

A recent candidate for explaining metamemory judgments is the perceptual fluency hypothesis, which proposes that easily perceived items are predicted to be remembered better, regardless of actual memory performance (Rhodes & Castel Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 137:615–625, 2008). In two experiments, we used the perceptual interference manipulation to test this hypothesis. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with intact and backward-masked words during encoding, followed by a metamemory prediction (a list-wide judgment of learning, JOL) and then a free recall test. Participants predicted that intact words would be better recalled, despite better actual memory for words in the perceptual interference condition, yielding a crossed double dissociation between predicted and actual memory performance. In Experiment 2, JOLs were made after each study word. Item-by-item JOLs were likewise higher for intact than for backward-masked words, despite similar actual memory performance for both types of words. The results are consistent with the perceptual fluency hypothesis of metamemory and are discussed in terms of experience-based and theory-based metamemory judgments.     

Judgments of learning reflect encoding fluency: conclusive evidence for the ease-of-processing hypothesis

According to the ease-of-processing hypothesis, judgments of learning (JOLs) rely on the ease with which items are committed to memory during encoding--that is, encoding fluency. Conclusive evidence for this hypothesis does not yet exist because encoding fluency and item difficulty have been confounded in all previous studies. To disentangle the effects of encoding fluency and item difficulty on JOLs, we used a variant of the learner-observer-judge method in which participants observed the study phase of another participant and indicated his or her JOLs. At the same time, the to-be-studied word pairs were concealed by strings of symbols. Our experiment revealed that participants use self-paced study time as a cue for JOLs when they themselves have studied and recalled word pairs before. This metacognitive monitoring of study time provides strong support for the ease-of-processing hypothesis.     

项目分值对学习时间分配的影响：一种动态的过程

摘 要 研究考察了不同学习时段上,项目分值对学习时间分配的影响。结果发现: (1)分值的主效应显著,被试会选择更多的高分值项目学习, 且在高分值项目上分配更多的学习时间; (2)分值与学习时段存在交互作用,被试首先学习高分值项目,随后逐渐将学习重心转向中等分值项目,最后在临近测试前重点重学高分值项目。结果表明：学习时间分配是动态变化的,个体为了尽可能实现学习目标会在学习过程中不断调整所建构的议程。     

Delaying judgments of learning affects memory,not metamemory

Judgments of learning (JOLs) for cue-target word pairs correlate particularly well with later target recall when made under conditions that permit delayed attempts to retrieve the targets--the delayed-JOL effect. Metamemory theories claim that memory monitoring improves under these conditions. However, another theory--the memory hypothesis--claims that the correlation increases because retrieved items receive a boost in recall from spaced study and are assigned high JOLs, whereas unretrieved items receive no spaced study and, therefore, no boost in recall and, consequently, are assigned low JOLs. When we eliminated differences in spaced study by reexposing word pairs following their JOLs, the delayed-JOL effect disappeared, supporting the memory hypothesis.     

Illusions of competence and overestimation of associative memory for identical items: Evidence from judgments of learning

The relation between subjects’ predicted and actual memory performance is a central issue in the domain of metacognition. In the present study, we examined the influence of item similarity and associative strength on judgments of learning (JOLs) in a cued recall task. We hypothesized that encoding fluency would cause a foresight bias, so that subjects would overestimate recall of identical pairs (scale-scale), as compared with strong associates (weight-scale) or unrelated pairs (mask-scale). In Experiment 1, JOLs for identical word pairs were higher than those for related and unrelated pairs, but later recall of identical pairs was lower than recall of related pairs. In Experiment 2, the effect of encoding fluency (inferred from self-paced study time) was examined, and a similar pattern of results was obtained, with subjects spending the least amount of time studying identical pairs. We conclude that overconfidence for identical pairs reflects an assessment of item similarity when JOLs are made, despite associative strength being a better predictor of later retrieval.     

Developmental relationships among metamemory,elaborative strategy use,and associative memory

Two experiments examined the relationships among metamemory knowledge, the use of associative memory strategies like elaboration, and cued-recall memory. In Experiment 1, 5th and 12th graders verbalized their strategies while studying noun pairs; their cued-recall memory of those pairs was then tested. Metamemory knowledge was assessed before or after this task. ANOVAs revealed developmental increases in associative strategies, cued recall, and metamemory. Multiple regression indicated the increase in associative strategies predicted all but 4% of the increase in cued recall; metamemory development in turn predicted all but 4% of the increase in associative strategies. Metamemory was a better predictor than a nonverbal measure of intelligence. The strong relationships were due partly to methodological refinements, including a counterbalanced design, a direct strategy measure, a reliable composite rather than single-item metamemory measure, ordinal rather than dichotomous scoring of metamemory items, and regression rather than χ² analyses. The results of Experiment 1 were replicated in Experiment 2. Metamemory development also predicted most of the grade difference in cued recall that remained after study strategies were equated by elaboration instructions, suggesting it may explain improvements in retrieval strategies as well.